Complexity_ A Guided Tour - Melanie Mitchell [156]
“we need to answer the following”: My questions are related to the three levels of description of information processing proposed by David Marr, described in his book Vision: Marr, D. Vision. San Francisco, Freeman, 1982. Questions similar to mine were formulated by Ron McClamrock; see McClamrock, R., Marr’s three levels: A re-evaluation. Minds and Machines, 1 (2), 1991, pp. 185–196.
“The Immune System”: Two excellent, readable overviews of the immune system are Sompayrac, L. M., How the Immune System Works, 2nd edition, Blackwell Publishing, 1991; and Hofmeyr, S. A., An interpretive introduction to the immune system. In L. A. Segel and I. R. Cohen (editors), Design Principles for the Immune System and Other Distributed Autonomous Systems. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
“A third mechanism has been hypothesized”: For more details, see Lesley, R. Xu, Y., Kalled, S. L., Hess, D. M., Schwab, S. R., Shu, H.-B., and Cyster, J. G., Reduced competitiveness of autoantigen-engaged B cells due to increased dependence on BAFF. Immunity, 20 (4), 2004, pp. 441–453.
“foraging for food works roughly as follows”: For more detailed descriptions of ant foraging, see Bonabeau, E., Dorigo, M., and Theraulaz, G., Swarm Intelligence: From Natural to Artificial Systems. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
“The ecologist Deborah Gordon has studied task allocation”: See, e.g., Gordon, D. M., Task allocation in ant colonies. In L. A. Segel and I. R. Cohen. (editors), Design Principles for the Immune System and Other Distributed Autonomous Systems. New York: Oxford University Press., 2001.
“construction of bridges or shelters”: e.g., see Lioni, A., Sauwens, C., Theraulaz, G., and Deneubourg, J.-L., Chain formation in OEcophylla longinoda. Journal of Insect Behavior, 14 (5), 2001, pp. 679–696.
“All three systems described above use randomness”: The role of randomness in complex adaptive systems is also explored in Millonas, M. M., The importance of being noisy. Bulletin of the Santa Fe Institute, Summer, 1994.
“Eventually, the ants will have established a detailed map”: Ziff, E. and Rosenfield, I., Evolving evolution. The New York Review of Books, 53, 8, May 11, 2006.
“‘parallel terraced scan’ ”: Hofstadter D., Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies. New York: Basic Books, 1995, p. 92.
“Maintaining a correct balance”: This is discussed in Holland, J. H., Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992 (first edition, 1975); and Hofstadter, D. R. and Mitchell, M., The Copycat project: A model of mental fluidity and analogy-making. In K. Holyoak and J. Barnden (editors), Advances in Connectionist and Neural Computation Theory, Volume 2: Analogical Connections, 1994, pp. 31–112.
“who or what actually perceives the meaning”: Some of the many books and articles addressing these issues from a philosophical standpoint are the following: Hofstadter, D. R., Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid. New York: Basic Books, 1979; Dennett, D. R., Consciousness Explained. Boston: Little, Brown, 1991; Bickhard, M. H., The biological foundations of cognitive science. In Mind 4: Proceedings of the 4th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society of Ireland. Dublin, Ireland: J. Benjamins, 1999; Floridi, L., Open problems in the philosophy of information. Metaphilosophy, 35 (4), 2004, pp. 554–582; and Hofstadter, D., I am a Strange Loop. New York: Basic Books, 2007.
“artificial immune systems”: See, e.g., Hofmeyr, S. A. and Forrest, S., Architecture for an artificial immune system. Evolutionary Computation, 8 (4), 2000, pp. 443–473.
“ant colony optimization algorithms”: See, e.g., Dorigo, M. and Stützle, T., Ant Colony Optimization, MIT Press, 2004.
Chapter 13
“How to Make Analogies”: Parts of this chapter were adapted from Mitchell, M., Analogy-Making as Perception, MIT Press, 1993; and Mitchell, M., Analogy-making as a complex adaptive system. In L. Segel and I.