Crime and Punishment in American History - Lawrence M. Friedman [340]
34 Ibid., at 52.
35 250 U.S. 616 (1919); the case, its background, and its aftermath are discussed in Richard Polenberg’s fine study, Fighting Faiths: The Abrams Case, the Supreme Court and Free Speech (1987).
36 Abrams and others were later deported to the Soviet Union; Polenberg, Fighting Faiths, p. 341; still later, ironically, the Soviet Union itself deported them as subversives.
37 John D. Lawson, ed., American State Trials, Vol. 12 (1919), pp. 897, 960—61.
38 Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919—1920 (1955), pp. 210—22; Preston, Aliens and Dissenters, pp. 220—21.
39 Laws Ariz. 1919, chap. 11, p. 11. The Espionage Act of 1918 had made it a crime to display the flag of “any foreign enemy.” 40 Stats. 553 (act of May 16, 1918).
40 Murray, Red Scare, pp. 233—34.
41 Laws Idaho 1917, chap. 145, p. 459.
42 Laws Cal. 1919, chap. 188, p. 281; Stephen F. Rohde, “Criminal Syndicalism : The Repression of Radical Political Speech in California,” Western Legal History 3:309 (1990).
43 Rohde, “Criminal Syndicalism,” p. 316. It is estimated that about 1,400 people were arrested under syndicalist and related laws in 1919—20, in the United States; about 300 were convicted and sent to prison. Murray, Red Scare, p. 234.
44 274 U.S. 357 (1927).
45 This account is based on Charles H. Martin, The Angelo Herndon Case and Southern Justice (1976). The Hudson quote is pp. 57—58; the statute struck down was Ga. Code 1933, sections 26—901 to 904.
46 Herndon v. Lowry, 301 U.S. 242, 263 (1937); Martin, The Angelo Herndon Case, p. 182.
47 Francis Russell, Sacco and Vanzetti: The Case Resolved (1986), p. 222.
48 Russell, Sacco and Vanzetti, p. 202. Russell argues that Sacco was guilty and Vanzetti innocent. The literature on the case is enormous and highly polemical. The weight of the writing, in sheer tonnage at least, comes down on the side of innocence and miscarriage of justice.
49 Melvin I. Urofsky, A March of Liberty: A Constitutional History of the United States (1988), p. 726.
50 323 U.S. 214 (1944). The background and the cases are discussed in Peter Irons, Justice at War (1983).
51 Harry N. Scheiber and Jane L. Scheiber, “Constitutional Liberty in World War II: Army Rule and Martial Law in Hawaii, 1941—1946,” Western Legal History 3:341—352 (1990).
52 Scheiber and Scheiber, “Constitutional Liberty,” pp. 353—54.
53 On the trial, see Stanley I. Kutler, The American Inquisition: Justice and Injustice in the Cold War (1982), chap. 1.
54 For one example, the vendetta in New York against the International Workers Order, an insurance organization, see Arthur J. Sabin, Red Scare in Court: New York versus The International Workers Order (1993).
55 On the trial and other aspects of the McCarthy period, see Urofsky, March of Liberty, pp. 748—57.
56 Kutler, The American Inquisition, chap. 6.
57 Dennis v. United States, 341 U.S. 494 (1951).
58 354 U.S. 298 (1957).
59 395 U.S. 444 ( 1969).
60 On this trial, see, for example, Alistair Cooke, A Generation on Trial: U.S.A. v. Alger Hiss (1950).
61 On these trials, see Steven E. Barkan, Protesters on Trial: Criminal Justice in the Southern Civil Rights and Vietnam Antiwar Movements (1985).
62 Barkan, Protesters on Trial, p. 127.
63 Washington Post, May 30, 1979, p. B1; “Night of Gay Rage,” Newsweek, June 4, 1979, p. 30.
64 New York Times, April 30, 1992, p. 1; May 1, 1992, p. 1.
65 Gerard C. Brandon, “The Unequal Application of the Criminal Law,” Journal of Criminal Law 1 :893, 896-97 (1911).
66 Fosdick, American Police Systems, p. 45.
67 See Dan T. Carter, Scottsboro: A Tragedy of the American South (1969), pp. 110-11.
68 See, on the Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching (ASWPL), Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, Revolt Against Chivalry: Jessie Daniel Ames and the Women’s Campaign Against Lynching (1979). Hall is particularly good at discussing the gender aspects of lynching, that is, the way it reinforced a particular view of southern womanhood.
69 Hall, Revolt Against Chivalry, pp. 129−30. This particular lynching was the impetus