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8. Levy, “Introduction,” pp. 21-28; Masters, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, pp. 24, 26-27, 4217, 50-52; Robert Mantran, “Foreign Merchants and the Minorities in Istanbul in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,” in Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire, pp. 127, 132-34.

9. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York: Vintage Books, 1989), pp. 5, 11-12; Donald Quataert, The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 3.

10. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, pp. 11-12.

11. Ibid.; Levy, “Introduction,” pp. 73-74; Masters, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, pp. 7-8, 129, 141-44.

12. Levy, “Introduction,” pp. 74-76, 79-86.

13. On the Ottoman decline, see for example Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu, ed., History of the Ottoman State, Society, and Civilization, vol. 1 (Istanbul: Research Center for Islamic History, Art, and Culture, 2001), pp. 4314, 53-57, 95- 100, 108; Charles Swallow, The Sick Man of Europe: Ottoman Empire to Turkish Republic, 1789-1923 (London: Ernest Benn, 1973), pp. 5-6, 13-14. On the Armenian massacre, see Vahakn N. Dadrian, “Genocide as a Problem of National and International Law: The World War I Armenian Case and Its Contemporary Legal Ramifications,” Yale Journal of International Law, vol. 14 (1989), pp. 221, 24215, 262-64, 272.

14. Valerie Hansen, The Open Empire: A History of China to 1600 (New York: W W Norton, 2000), pp. 378-79; Kennedy, The Rise and Tall of the Great Powers, pp. 4-7; Gavin Menzies, 1421: The Year China Discovered America (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), pp. 45, 52, 63, 70; Philip Snow, The Star Raft: China's Encounter with Africa (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988), pp. 21-23.

15. Edward L. Dreyer, Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433 (New York: Pearson Education, 2007), pp. 1-38; Hansen, The Open Empire, pp. 371-83; Snow, The Star Raft, pp. 10, 21-22; see also Julie Wilensky, “The Magical Kumlun and ‘Devil Slaves': Chinese Perceptions of Dark-Skinned People and Africa Before 1500,” Sino-Platonic Papers, vol. 122 (July 2002).

16. Hansen, The Open Empire, pp. 381-82; Snow, The Star Raft, pp. 21-22.

17. Hansen, The Open Empire, p. 379; G. E Hudson, Europe and China (London: Edward Arnold & Co., 1931), pp. 195-96; Menzies, 1421: The Year China Discovered America, p. 60; Snow, The Star Raft, pp. 29, 32.

18. Hansen, The Open Empire, pp. 383-87; Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, pp. 7-9.

19. See J. N. Datta, “Proportion of Muhammadans in India Through Centuries,” Modern Review, vol. 78 (Jan. 1948), pp. 31, 33. On the destruction of the mosque in Ayodhya in 1992 and the claims of Hindu nationalists, see Amartya Sen, The Argumentative Indian (London: Penguin, 2005), pp. 48, 209,287.

20. My discussion of Babur and Humayun draws heavily on Abraham Eraly, The Mughal Throne: The Saga of India's Great Emperors (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997), pp. 15, 22-27 (Battle of Khanua), 103-13 (Humayun); see also Richard C. Foltz, Mughal India and Central Asia (Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. xv, 130; John E Richards, The Mughal Empire, The New Cambridge History of India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 1-8, 12. For a discussion of the rise of Islam in India and the reign of the so-called Delhi sultanate, see Francis Watson, A Concise History of India (New York: Charles Scribner, 1975), pp. 87-104.

21. Akbar's letter to Philip is reproduced in Pankaj Mishra, “The First Liberal Imperialist,” New Statesman, Mar. 24, 2003, available at www.newstatesman.com/200303240028.

22. For a general account of Akbar's reign, see Eraly, The Mughal Throne, pp. 114-36. On his alliances with the Rajputs, see Richards, The Mughal Empire, pp. 19-26; Norman Ziegler, “Some Notes on Rajput Loyalties During the Mughal Period,” in Muzaffar Alam and