42. Unfortunately for them, the Muslim majority was also growing at a comparable rate, from 2 to 8.7 million in the same period (Picoche and Marchello-Nizia 1989: 86, 104).

43. F. M. Dostoyevsky, Collected Works, vol. 21, in Writers Diary for 1880-81, iii, pp. 517-18. The Cyrillic spelling has not been modernised. These words were written in reaction to a celebrated Russian victory over the Turkmens at Gök Tepe (’Blue Hill’), on which Lord Curzon also commented: ‘The terrifying effect of such a massacre as Geok Tepe survives for generations’ (Russia in Central Asia in 1889 and the Anglo-Russian Question, London: Frank Cass, 1967, p. 386).

44. Hosking (1997: 5-6).

45. ibid.: 379.

46. ibid.: 369.

47. Lieven (2000: 334).

48. Hosking (1997: 18): Gen. Rostislav Fadeyev, 60 Tbilisi 1860, p. 9.

49. These figures are calculated from those in Grimes (2000). Evidently, Russian is very widely known and used as a second language in these countries (e.g. Grimes quotes 30 per cent for Armenia).

50. Roy (2000: 30-31).

51. ibid.: 32.

52. This figure is calculated from those in Grimes (2000).

53. This figure is calculated from those in ibid.

54. Archpriest Avvakum, quoted in Hosking (1997:69).

55. Lieven (2000: 255, 435, 278 and 437); he relies strongly on Gudrun Persson’s 1999 London University PhD thesis: The Russian Army and Foreign Wars 1859-1871.

56. Hosking (1997: 187).

57. ibid.: 36, quoting Erik Amburger, Geschichte der Behördenorganisation Russlands von Peter dem Grossen bis 1917, 1966, pp. 502-19, and Walter Laqueur, Russia and Germany, 1965, pp. 40-1.

58. Hosking (1997: 309-10).

59. ibid.: 402; Comrie (1981: 28).

60. Hosking (1997: 311), quoting Jeffrey Brooks, When Russia learnt to read: literary and popular culture, 1985.

61. Fisher (1978: 100-4).

62. Comrie (1981: 28).

63. ibid.: 1.

64. M. I. Isayev, National Languages in the USSR: Problems and solutions, 1977, pp. 300-1, quoted in Comrie (1981: 36-7).

65. Roy (2000: 169).

66. Barraclough (1978: 140).

67. Tsurumi (1984:277).

68. Chen (1984: 242), quoting Ken’ichi Kondō (ed.), Taiheiyō senka no Chōsen oyobi Taiwan, ‘Korea and Taiwan during the Pacific War’, Tokyo, 1961.

69. Tsurumi (1984: 303), paraphrasing Aoyagi Tsunatarō Keijō (Seoul), Shin Chōsen, ‘New Korea’, 1925.

70. See Miyawaki (2002): he notes a married couple in Micronesia, still using Japanese as a convenient means of communication that their children will not understand.

12 Microcosm or Distorting Mirror? The Career of English

1. T. S. Eliot, Four Quartets (1942), ‘Little Gidding’, part 2.

2. Brandt (1969: 374).

3. Smith (2000: 164).

4. Crowley (2000: 15). The original Norman French reads: ’III. Item ordine est et establie que chescun Engleys use la lang Engleis et soit nome par nom Engleys enterlessant oulterment la manere de nomere use par Irroies et que chescun Engleys use la manere guise monture et appareill Engleys solonc son estat et si nul Engleys ou Irroies [conversant entre Engleys use la lang Irroies] entre euxmesmes encontre cest ordinance et de ceo soit atteint soint sez terrez et tentz sil eit seisiz en les maines son Seinours immediate tanque qil veigne a un des places nostre Seignour le Roy et trove sufficient seurtee de prendre et user la lang Engleis…et auxiant que les beneficers de seint Esglise conversantz entre Anglois use la langue Engleis et sils ne facent eint leur ordinaries les issues de leur benefices tanque ils usent la langue Angloise en le maniere susdit et eient respit de la langue Engloise apprendre et de celles purvier entre cy et le feste seint Michael prochin avent.’

5. Act of Union 1536, section xvii, as quoted in Evans (1992: 298).

6. S.P.Hen. VIII to the Town of Galway, 1536, as quoted in Evans (1992: 296).

7. Crowley (2000: 19).

8. Proclamation of Henry III, 18 October