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Al-Jahiz 98

Al-Muqaddasi, Arab geographer 98

Alalah 62

Alans 305, 307, 308, 425

Alcuin, English scholar 316-318, 328

Aleksandr I, Tsar 431, 433, 438

Aleksey, Tsar 431

Aleppo 41

Alexander the Great 12, 30, 48, 57, 75-76, 85-86, 131, 165, 191, 219, 239, 243-245, 248, 250, 257, 276, 278

Alexander VI, Pope 336, 365

Alexander’s Campaign (Arrian) 272

Alexandria in Egypt 48, 86, 130, 131, 247-249, 259

Alexandria of the Arachosians 246

Alfonso X of Castile, king 384

Algeria 411-412, 416-418, 444, 520

Algonquian languages 477n, 483n, 484

Almoravids 99, 384

Alopen, Nestorian monk 90

Alphabet

abstract tool 46

Brahmi 85n, 156

Cyrillic 442, 443n

first 34, 72n, 110, 155

Kharoshthi 85n

Greek 242

Lugano 284-285

Roman 242, 476

runic 106

Siddha 156

see also writing

Altaic languages 138, 145, 146, 150, 151, 170

characteristics 138, 145

Altan Khan 179

Amadís de Gaula 331

Amama correspondence 62, 128

Amenophis III, pharaoh 231n

Americana, world enthusiasm for 179

Americas

bilingualism 346, 367, 376

Council of Lima 373

English-speaking communities 480-481

European colonies 482

Hispanización 373-377

indigenous languages 347-355, 356-360, 361-364, 366-375, 480-484

language-learning 345-346

loss of population 22, 336-338, 365

missionary linguists 346-347, 364, 368, 371, 373-375, 392-394, 481n, 499n, 509, 519, 537, 540n

political independence 375

and Portuguese 391-395

spread of Spanish 340, 343, 347, 364-373, 376, 444, 495

Amharic 36, 92

Amish community 92

Ammonite 70

Amorite 60n

Amorites 35n, 40, 42, 53, 60, 111, 164

Anacharsis, Scythian sage 243

Anáhuac, town in north-eastern Mexico 344

Anatolia 38, 42, 43n, 47-48, 65, 71, 83-84, 86, 106, 153, 247, 249, 250, 260, 260n, 262, 263-265

incursions by Gauls 293-294, 314

and Russia 434

Sultanate of Rum 263

Turkish advances 264, 266

Andalūs, el- see Spain

Andalusi dialect of Arabic 99

Andalusia 332

Anderson, Benedict 400n, 557

Angevin dynasty 460n, 463, 465-466

Anglesey 302, 313

Anglo-Dutch war 493

Anglo-Norman 460n, 461-465 see also

Norman French

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 461

Annales Cambriae 313

Annals of Ulster 313

Anshan 56-58

Antialkidas, king 192, 247

Antioch 90, 247, 250n

Antiochus Soter, king 68

Apollinaris, Sidonius 300

Apollonius of Tyana 258

Aquitanians 301

Arabia 101, 102, 121, 209

Arabic 20-22, 35, 38, 49, 78, 88n, 93-105, 335, 527n

Andalusi dialect 99

bilingualism 97-100, 163

demographics 527n, 530

diglossia 98

Language Teaching 521

Maghrebi dialect 78n

phonetic distinctions 108

pronunciation 69n, 94

and Queen Cleopatra 131

sacred language 93-96, 98, 100-101, 110, 520

script 94n, 97

similarity to Hebrew 110

spread of 95, 97-98, 102-105, 108, 111-112, 134, 141, 149, 164-165, 209, 212, 260, 377, 490, 528n, 536, 547, 554

Arabs, and Egypt 164-165, 260

Aragon 99, 332

Aram 35n, 64, 80, 83

Aramaeans 43-44, 64-66, 111, 164

Aramaic 12, 13, 21, 22, 35, 35n, 38, 47-50, 57, 80, 250, 335, 536

alphabetic script 63-64

chancery language 269, 517, 548

in China 141

and Christianity 88-90, 90n, 111

coins 247, 249

and Egypt 129-132, 149, 164-165

Imperial 80-81

inscriptions 83-85, 249

and Iran 108

and Islam 88n, 97

as lingua franca 246, 258

overtakes Akkadian 60-61, 63, 65-68, 70, 76, 78

pronunciation 81

related to Arabic 93, 110

supplanted by Greek as language of Persia 85

written interlingua 82

Arcadia 236

Arcado-Cyprian dialects of Greek 236

Archaeology 31, 46n, 67, 124-129, 136, 281, 290, 357

Ardashir, king of Persia 259

Argentina 339, 372

Nonconformist Welsh 93

Aristophanes 551

Aristotle 265, 278

Armenia 41, 88, 93, 96, 241, 269

Armenian 24n, 43, 300n, 434, 435, 442

alphabet 88

Arnold, Matthew 516n

Arphaxad, Hebrew ancestor 35n

Arrian, Greek historian 272

Arsaces, Parthian king 85

Arsames, Persian governor