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60. For some of the conventions of these exchanges see Joad Raymond, Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain (Cambridge, 2003), esp. pp. 206–14.

61. For the term bum-fodder: Margaret Spufford, Small Books and Pleasant Histories: Popular Fiction and Its Readership in Seventeenth-Century England (Athens, Ga, 1981), pp. 48–9; Alexandra Walsham, Providence in Early Modern England (Oxford, 1999), pp. 33–4. It was more usually, but not exclusively, associated with single-sheet ballads.

17. Military Defeat and Political Survival

1. Gardiner, III, pp. 103–4, 127. For the full text of the propositions see Gardiner, CD, pp. 290–306. There is a useful summary in David L. Smith, Constitutional Royalism and the Search for Settlement, c. 1640–1649 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 128-9; and a useful narrative in Robert Ashton, Counter-Revolution: The Second Civil War and Its Origins, 1646–1648 (New Haven, Conn., 1994), pp. 7–17.

2. Smith, Constitutional Royalism, pp. 128–9.

3. Quoted in Austin Woolrych, Britain in Revolution 1625–1660 (Oxford, 2002), p. 343; Gardiner, III, p. 127.

4. For a good summary of the position see David Underdown, Pride’s Purge: Politics in the Puritan Revolution (Oxford, 1971), ch. 3, esp. pp. 73–5; Austin Woolrych, Soldiers and Statesmen: The General Council of the Army and Its Debates, 1647–8 (Oxford, 1987), pp. 5–10. For the ordinances see Gardiner, III, pp. 137–8, 145. For anti-Scottish pamphlets see Ashton, Counter-Revolution, pp. 302–3.

5. Gardiner, III, pp. 79–80.

6. For Charles’s views in this period see Richard Cust, Charles I: A Political Life (Harlow, 2005), pp. 423–9; Gardiner, III, pp. 131–2.

7. Quoted in Smith, Constitutional Royalism, pp. 129–30.

8. Gardiner, III, pp. 165–6; Cust, Charles I, pp. 426–7. For Culpeper and Presbyterian popery see Culpeper Letters, esp. pp. 144–5; for an earlier example see John Morrill, Cheshire 1630–1660: County Government and Society during the English Revolution (Oxford, 1974), p. 50. This alliance of royalism and anti-Presbyterianism was evident in other circles during 1647: the royalist judge David Jenkins struck up an unlikely friendship with John Lilburne while they were both in the Tower: Pauline Gregg, Free-Born John: The Biography of John Lilburne (London, 1961), ch. 17. See above, p. 490.

9. John Morrill, ‘The Church in England, 1642–1649’, reprinted in John Morrill, The Nature of the English Revolution (Harlow, 1993), pp. 89–114, esp. pp. 103–8.

10. Smith, Constitutional Royalism, pp. 129–32, quotation at p. 130; Cust, Charles I, pp. 424–6.

11. Ibid., esp. pp. 420–22, 438–9, 469–70.

12. For Ormond’s position in Confederate politics see Miche´l Ó Siochrú, Confederate Ireland, 1642–1649: A Constitutional and Political Analysis (Dublin, 1999), esp. pp. 68–83.

13. Ibid., pp. 86–96; Gardiner, III, ch. 39; Patrick J. Corish, ‘Ormond, Rinuccini, and the Confederates, 1645–9’, in T. W. Moody, F. X. Martin and F. J. Byrne (eds.), A New History of Ireland, vol. 3: Early Modern Ireland 1534–1691 (Oxford, 1976), pp. 317–35.

14. Ó Siochrú, Confederate Ireland, pp. 96–117; Gardiner, III, pp. 52–7, 151–3; Corish, ‘Ormond’, pp. 319–20.

15. Gardiner, III, ch. 44; Corish, ‘Ormond’, pp. 320–21.

16. David Stevenson, Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Scotland, 1644–1651 (London, 1977), pp. 54–64.

17. Ibid., pp. 64–72. For the ambiguous relationship between royalism and Presbyterianism see Ashton, Counter-Revolution, ch. 8.

18. Stevenson, Revolution and Counter-Revolution, pp. 57–60, 64–6, 68; Gardiner, III, pp. 126–32; Cust. Charles 1, pp. 412, 423.

19. Gardiner, III, pp. 151–3, 175–7, 178.

20. Gardiner, CD, pp. 306–8, quotations at pp. 306, 307.

21. Quoted in Cust, Charles 1, p. 420.

22. Gardiner, CD, pp. 308–9, 311–16. For the circumstances of his answer in May see above, p. 492.

23. Gardiner, III, pp. 138, 144–5, 178–80, 182–5, 188–9; Stevenson, Revolution and Counter-Revolution, pp. 69, 72–81; Woolrych, Britain in Revolution, pp. 349–50.

24. Gardiner, III, pp. 130, 173, 182; Cust, Charles