Intelligence_ From Secrets to Policy - Mark M. Lowenthal [114]
In the 1970s a “senior U.S. government official” (probably Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger) observed, “There is no such thing as ‘friendly’ intelligence agencies. There are only the intelligence agencies of friendly powers,”
The polygraph, sometimes mistakenly referred to as a lie detector, is a machine that monitors physical responses (such as pulse and breathing rate) to a series of questions. Changes in physical responses may indicate falsehoods or deceptions. The use of the polygraph by U.S. intelligence remains controversial, as it is imperfect and can be deceived. A 2002 study by the National Research Council found that polygraphs are more useful in criminal investigations, where specific questions can be asked, than for counterintelligence, where the questions are more general and therefore are more likely to yield false-positive responses.
At least two spies, Larry Wu-tai Chin and Aldrich Ames, passed polygraph tests while they were involved in espionage against the United States. Advocates of the polygraph argue that it does serve as a deterrent. They are also quick to assert that the machine is only a tool that can point to problem areas, some of which may be resolved without prejudice. However, an individual’s inability or failure to resolve such issues can lead to termination. In addition to new employees, current employees are polygraphed at intervals of several years; contractors are subject to polygraphs; and the machines are used with defectors. Polygraphs are not used consistently throughout the national security structure, however. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), National Reconnaissance Office, and National Security Agency (NSA) all use polygraphs; the State Department and Congress do not. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) began using polygraphs in the aftermath of the 2001 Robert Hanssen espionage case, which revealed that polygraphs had not been in use at the FBI. This is not to suggest that some agencies are more rigorous or more lax than others. But it does underscore a range of standards in terms of personnel security.
Despite the fact that so many agencies use polygraphs as part of their security practice, there is no standard procedure for these tests. Each agency administers polygraphs to its own standards, which, according to press accounts, can lead to different results for the same subject. Also, agencies do not accept one another’s polygraph results, which can be interpreted as either rigor or the lack of an agreed baseline.
Categorizing the different types of polygraph exams depends on the questions being asked and the information being sought. Thus, intelligence agencies have what they call the lifestyle poly (personal behavior) and the counterintelligence poly (foreign contacts, handling of classified information). In some instances, such as vetting a source, only a few pertinent questions are asked.
Beyond taking a polygraph (known as “being put on the box”), employees and prospective employees are evaluated for other possible indicators of disloyalty. Changes in personal behavior or lifestyle—marital problems, increased use of alcohol, suspected use of drugs, increased personal spending that seems to exceed known resources, running up large debts—may be signs that an individual is spying or susceptible to being recruited or volunteering to spy. Any of these personal difficulties may befall an individual