Intelligence in Nature - Jeremy Narby [74]
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P. 42: ALEX THE AFRICAN GREY PARROT
See Pepperberg (1999). Stories on Alex appeared among others in Scientific American (see Mukerjee 1996) and the New York Times (see Smith 1999).
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P. 42: ANTS CULTIVATE MUSHROOMS WITH ANTIBIOTICS
See âFungus-growing ants use antibiotic-producing bacteria to control garden parasites,â by Currie et al. (1999). Schultz (1999) comments: âLike the parallels between ant and human agriculture, understanding this use of antibiotics by ants could be directly relevant to human survivalâ¦. Given that rapidly evolving pathogen resistance seems to be outpacing human antibiotic development, one might ask how the attine antibiotics have remained effective against the fungus-garden pathogens for such a long timeâ (p. 748). Wade (1999) comments: âEven now, the ants are accomplishing two feats beyond the powers of human technology. The leaf-cutters are growing a monocultural crop year after year without disaster, and they are using an antibiotic apparently so wisely and prudently that, unlike people, they are not provoking antibiotic resistance in the target pathogenâ (p. D4). Colonies of some leaf-cutter species have the collective biomass of an adult cow, and they cut a cowâs daily requirement of fresh vegetation. Leaf-cutter ants bring about 15 percent of the tropical forestsâ vegetation into their nests.
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P. 43: DEFINITIONS OF INTELLIGENCE
Stern (1999) writes: âDifferent cultures and sub-cultures vary in the emphasis placed upon various expressions of intelligence. The skills and behaviors that are valued and encouraged in one society may be quite different from those valued and encouraged in anotherâ (p. 504). Franklin (1995) writes: âBefore trying to define artificial intelligence, we thought it prudent first to say what we meant by intelligence. After almost two years of wrangling, we gave it up as hopelessâ (pp. 187â88). For the quotes in the main text, see Gardner 1999 (pp. 19, 33â34, 88, 94) and Stern 1999 (pp. 504, 506).
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P. 44: MONOD AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Monod (1971) writes: âThe cornerstone of the scientific method is the postulate that nature is objective. In other words, the systematic denial that âtrueâ knowledge can be reached by interpreting phenomena in terms of final causesâthat is to say, of âpurposeââ¦. This pure postulate is impossible to demonstrate, for it is obviously impossible to imagine an experiment proving the nonexistence anywhere in nature of a purpose, or a pursued end. But the postulate of objectivity is consubstantial with science, and has guided the whole of its prodigious development for three centuries. It is impossible to escape it, even provisionally or in a limited area, without departing from the domain of science itselfâ (original italics, pp. 30â31).
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P. 45: MECHANICAL BEES
The quote is from Monod (1971, p. 18). The quote by Donald Griffin is from an interview by Vines (2001, p. 51).
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P. 45: CHANGING MENTALITIES IN SCIENCE
The quote is from Kennedy (2002, p. 7).
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P. 46: BACON AND ANTHROPOMORPHISM
Bacon (1960, orig. 1620) writes: ââ¦although the most general principles in nature ought to be held merely positive, as they are discovered, and cannot with truth be referred to a cause, nevertheless the human understanding being unable to rest still seeks something prior in the order of nature. And then it is that in struggling toward that which is further off it falls back upon that which is nearer at hand, namely, on final causes, which have relation clearly to the nature of man rather than to the nature of the universe; and from this source have strangely defiled philosophyâ (pp. 51â52). Levy (2001) writes: âAmong those who study animal behavior, anthropomorphism is generally considered a cardinal sin. That helps explain why they havenât expressed much interest in personality