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By Root 1991 0

a religious institution.” Hill and Blair, eds., Marcus Garvey: Life and Lessons, p. xxxvii. There are numerous studies on Garvey and Garveyism. Several important works are: Robert A. Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983-present); Rupert Lewis, Marcus Garvey: Anti-Colonial Champion (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1988); Claudrena N. Harold, The Rise and Fall of the Garvey Movement in the Urban South, 19 18-1942 (London: Routledge, 2007); and Emory J. Tolbert, The UNIA and Black Los Angeles (Los Angeles: Center for Afro-American Studies, University of California Press, 1980).

20 putting Philadelphia behind only New York City in total membership. Peter Cole, Wobblies on the Waterfront: Interracial Unionism in Progressive-Era Philadelphia (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2007), pp. 138-39.

20 presidential candidate in the 1920 elections. Robert Gregg, Sparks from the Anvil of Oppression: Philadelphia’s African Methodists and Southern Migrants, 1840-1940 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993), pp. 189-90; and Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. 1, 1826-August 1919, p. 515. Eason’s sale of his church building backfired, as congregants filed a civil suit against him. The majority of church members subsequently moved to replace Eason with the Reverend B. J. Bolding. In the wake of the controversy Eason relocated most of his activities for Garvey to Harlem, where he remained wildly popular. See Gregg, Sparks from the Anvil of Oppression, p. 190.

20 “French Negro . . . we represent all Negroes.” James Walker Hood Eason, “Declaration of Aims,” in Robert A. Hill, ed., Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. 2, August 1919-August 31, 1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), pp. 502-7.

20 in more than eight hundred branch organizations or chapters. Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience, p. 80.

20 one of the largest mass movements in black history. See Tony Martin, Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Strategies of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (New York: Dover, 1976); and E. U. Essien-Udom, Black Nationalism: A Search for an Identity in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).

21 and by 1923 membership totaled forty-five thousand. See Michael W. Schuyler, “The Ku Klux Klan in Nebraska, 1920-1930,” Nebraska History, vol. 66, no. 3 (1985), pp. 234- 56 ; and Eldora F. Hess, “The Negro in Nebraska,” M.A. thesis, University of Nebraska at Lincoln, 1932.

21 “frequently carrying American flags; others rode horses.” Schuyler, “The Ku Klux Klan in Nebraska, 1920-1930,” pp. 235-36.

21 “will drive the common allies together.” Ibid., p. 247.

21 where Klan supporters ensured its failure. Ibid., pp. 247-48.

22 and it had become a force in national politics. Hugo Black formally joined the Ku Klux Klan in Birmingham in 1923. His induction was in front of seventeen hundred Klansmen in the Robert E. Lee chapter. See Howard Ball, Hugo Black: Cold Steel Warrior (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 61. Robert Byrd joined the KKK in 1942, when he was twenty-four years old. See Eric Pianin, “A Senator ’s Shame,” Washington Post, June 19, 2005.

22 “the feelings of every real white American.” “Hon. Marcus Garvey Tells of Interview with the Ku Klux Klan,” in The Negro World, July 15, 1922, from Robert A. Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. 4, September 1921-September 1922 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 707-15.

22 were far more ruthless than their leader. Colin Grant, Negro with a Hat: The Rise and Fall of Marcus Garvey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 360-61; and Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. 1, p. 515.

22 led local blacks to fear KKK reprisals. According to Rodnell P. Collins, the son of Malcolm X’s paternal