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resistance to U.S. compulsory vaccination in the Philippines, see “Manila Is Healthful,” NYT, Aug. 19, 1903, 8. Note these are just a few examples, and they are taken only from the first few years of the twentieth century. I also have collected many examples from the 1890s and further into the decades of the 1900s and 1910s.

61 “Smallpox and Vaccination,” BMJ, 40 (Feb. 1901), 525.

62 See for example C. P. Wertenbaker, “Investigation of Smallpox at Columbia and Sumter, S.C.,” PHR, 13 (May 13, 1898), 468–70.

TWO: THE MILD TYPE

1 G. M. Magruder, “Passed Assistant Surgeon Magruder’s Report on Smallpox at Little Rock, Ark.,” PHR, 13 (May 6, 1898), 437. See Louis Leroy, Smallpox: Its Diagnosis, Treatment, Restriction and Prevention, with a Few Remarks upon the Present Epidemic, issued by the Tennessee State Board of Health (Nashville: Tennessee State Board of Health, 1900).

2 See Charles V. Chapin, “Variation in Type of Infectious Disease as Shown by the History of Small-pox in the United States 1895–1912,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, 13 (1913), 171–96, esp. 173; Charles V. Chapin and Joseph Smith, “Permanency of the Mild Type of Smallpox,” Journal of Preventive Medicine, 6 (1932): 273–320.

3 C. P. Wertenbaker, “Plan of Organization for the Suppression of Smallpox,” p. 62, typescript in CPWL, vol. 6.

4 On public health administration in the southern United States, see Francis R. Allen, “Development of the Public Health Movement in the Southeast,” Social Forces, 22 (1943): 67–75. On the lack of administrative systems for tracking disease and vital statistics in the states, especially in the South, see USSGPHMHS 1910, 189; USSGPHMHS 1911, 241; U.S. Census Bureau, A Discussion of the Vital Statistics of the Twelfth Census, by Dr. John Shaw Billings (Washington, 1904), esp. 7–8; and Chapin, “Variation in Type,” 171–72.

5 “Warning Against Small-Pox,” Feb. 15, 1898, KBOH 1898–99, 22. See Chapin, “Variation in Type,” 173, 174; G. M. Magruder, “Work of the Service in Suppressing Smallpox in Alabama,” PHR, 13 (Mar. 18, 1898), 246–51; KBOH 1900–01, 17; NCBOH 1903–04, 13; USSGPHMHS 1898, 598–99.

6 Richard H. Lewis, “Annual Report of the Secretary of the North Carolina Board of Health, 1898–99,” in NCBOH 1899–1900, 23. See, e.g., C.P. Wertenbaker, “The Smallpox Outbreak in Bristol, Va.-Tenn.,” PHR, 14 (Nov.3, 1899), 1890; “Value of Vaccination,” PHR, 14 (Feb. 10, 1899), 180.

7 LBOH 1898–99, 55, 129. NOBOH 1900–01, 23–24. “Guarding Public Health,” AC, Mar. 23, 1901, 3. As late as 1909, Surgeon General Wyman said no one could predict “whether” the mild type of smallpox would “change to the more usual fatal form.” USSGPHMHS 1909, 201.

8 Chapin, “Variation in Type,” 196. In 1932, Chapin and his coauthor Joseph Smith published another major scientific article on the subject; Chapin and Smith, “Permanency of the Mild Type,” esp. 319, emphasis added. The authors observed: “The statement should rather be, that it [mild type smallpox] has for the most part bred true, for it is not intended to prejudge the question whether it ever reverts to the classical type. That it does not revert is the belief of practically all American epidemiologists who have had experience with this disease.” Ibid., 276. See Fenner et al., Smallpox and Its Eradication, 96.

9 Fenner et al., Smallpox and Its Eradication, 3, 96–103, 329–32. K. R. Dumbell and Farida Huq, “The Virology of Variola Minor Correlation of Laboratory Tests with the Geographic Distribution and Human Virulence of Variola Isolates,” American Journal of Epidemiology, 123 (1986): 403–15.

10 Fenner et al., Smallpox and Its Eradication, 3.

11 Chapin, “Variation in Type.” 171–96. Charles and Smith, “Permanency of the Mild Type.” Fenner et al., Smallpox and Its Eradication, 3, 96–103, 329–32. J. Pickford Marsden, “Variola Minor: A Personal Analysis of 13,686 Cases,” Bulletin of Hygiene, 23 (1948): 735–46.

12 The phrase “creative destruction” comes, of course, from Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1942).