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43 Fenner et al., Smallpox and Its Eradication, 50–54.

44 “Supply of Coffins Is Short,” AC, Mar. 8, 1900, 8. See “Guarding Public Health,” ibid., Mar. 23, 1901, 3; “Will Not Ask for Increase,” ibid., Dec. 11, 1901, 4.

45 “Précis,” 39. Fenner et al., Smallpox and Its Eradication, 22, 139, 167.

46 “Précis,” 38–39. Fenner et al., Smallpox and Its Eradication, 32, 4, 167. Preston, “Demon in the Freezer,” 50. See also Stoner, Handbook for the Ship’s Medicine Chest, 22.

47 WTC. The image of the scarred man is #1500, titled “Small Pox (after recovery).”

48 See, for example, the display advertisement for the John H. Woodbury Dermatological Institute in New York City, NYT, Jan. 26, 1908, 6; and “Woman Choked to Death,” ibid., Jul. 15, 1910, 7. See also “Sheriff’s Department,” Houston Post, Feb. 15, 1897, 6; “Priest’s Murder Was Incited by a Rare Jewel,” NYEW, May 27, 1907, 2.

49 See generally John Duffy, The Sanitarians: A History of American Public Health (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1990); idem, From Humors to Medical Science: A History of American Medicine, 2d ed. (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Gerald Grob, The Deadly Truth: A History of Disease in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002). Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998). For a concise overview, see C.-E. A. Winslow, “Public Health,” in Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, ed. Edwin R. A. Seligman, vol. 11, 646–57. The best introduction to the legal aspects of public health administration in the early twentieth century is James A. Tobey, Public Health Law: A Manual of Law for Sanitarians (Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Co., 1926).

50 Fenner et al., Smallpox and Its Eradication, 146.

51 Elizabeth A. Fenn, Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775–82 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001). Fenner et al., Smallpox and Its Eradication, 217, 245–58. Hopkins, Princes and Peasants , 249–53.

52 Fenner et al., Smallpox and Its Eradication, 258–73.

53 James Gillray, “The Cow Pock—or—the Wonderful Effects of the New Inoculation!” The cartoon appeared in Vide—The Publications of the Anti-Vaccine Society, June 12, 1802. It is now held in the National Library of Medicine Collection, and may be viewed in vivid color at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/frankenstein/frank_promise.html, accessed November 9, 2006. For a fascinating discussion of the cultural context, see Tim Fulford and Debbie Lee, “The Jenneration of Disease: Vaccination, Romanticism, and Revolution,” Studies in Romanticism, 39 (2000): 139–64.

54 “Précis,” 42.

55 “Précis,” 39–40, esp. 40. Fenner et al., Smallpox and Its Eradication, 27, 65.

56 Peter Baldwin, Contagion and the State in Europe, 1830–1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 244–354. See also Fenner et al., Smallpox and Its Eradication, 258–76.

57 See generally Tobey, Public Health Law.

58 According to the “Précis,” “The French army numbered 23,000 deaths by it [smallpox], while the German army had only 278.” “Précis,” 43. I am using the numbers here from Fenner et al., Small-pox and Its Eradication, 232, assuming them to be more accurate.

59 “Précis,” 43. USSGPHMHS 1898, 630.

60 For phony certificates, see “Vaccination Certificate Frauds,” NYT, May 9, 1904, 8. For evidence of families taking care of their own (and then being discovered by the authorities), see “Smallpox Nest in Brooklyn,” ibid., Mar. 20, 1901, 2; “Defies the Health Board” (Harrison, NJ), ibid., Jul. 27, 1901, 2; “Fight for a Sick Child” (Newark, NJ), ibid., Nov. 12, 1901, 3. For escapes from quarantines or pesthouses, see “‘Mother’ Jones Arrested” (in a Utah mining camp), ibid., Apr. 27, 1904, 3. For resistance to vaccination in other U.S. settings, see “Miners Resist Vaccination” (Lead, SD), ibid., Apr. 25, 1902, 1; “Object to Vaccination” (African American railway workers on the Western Maryland Improvement), WP, May 3, 1901, 9. For Filipino