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1908), 16–17; Oliver Otis Howard to Joseph Hooker, Apr. 19, 1863, in Chronicles from the Nineteenth Century: Family Letters of Blanche Butler and Adelbert Ames . . . , vol. 1, comp. by Blanche Butler Ames (Clinton, MA, privately issued, 1957); Mason Whiting Tyler, “Memoir of Mason Whiting Tyler,” in Recollections of the Civil War: With Many Original Diary Entries and Letters Written from the Seat of War (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1912), 47. Donald R. Hopkins, Princes and Peasants, 273–82. Jonathan B. Tucker, Scourge: The Once and Future Threat of Smallpox (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2001), 32.

41 Col. A. W. Shaffer, “Small-pox and Vaccination for Plain People. By One of Them,” NCBOH 1897–98, 176.

42 KBOH 1900–01, 79. NCBOH 1899–1900, 13, 21. “The Old, Old Enemy,” DMN, Mar. 9, 1900, 6.

43 C. P. Wertenbaker, “Investigation of Smallpox at Columbia and Sumter, S.C.,” PHR, 13 (May 13, 1898), 470. KBOH 1896–97, 80.

44 KBOH 1902–03, 172. “Precautions Against Smallpox,” Columbus Daily Enquirer (Georgia), Mar. 10, 1899. “Vaccination: Ugly Accidents Arising from the Smallpox Preventive,” DMN, May 14, 1899, 3.

45 Kinyoun in NCBOH 1897–98, 114. NCBOH 1899–1900, 49. Smock in KBOH 1898–99, 149. W. P. McIntosh, Surgeon, MHS, “Smallpox in Houston County, Ga.,” PHR, 15 (Dec. 14, 1900), 3029. KBOH 1900–01, 18.

46 Washington quoted in Finding a Way Out: An Autobiography, by Robert Russa Moton (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1921), 182.

47 C. P. Wertenbaker, “Smallpox in Georgia,” PHR, 14 (Nov. 3, 1899), 1891.

48 G. M. Magruder, “Passed Assistant Surgeon Magruder’s Report on Smallpox at Little Rock, Ark.,” PHR, 13 (May 6, 1898), 437. D. S. Humphreys, “Smallpox in Greenwood, Miss.,” PHR, 15 (Mar. 9, 1900), 516. According to the 1900 Census, African Americans constituted one third of the population of North Carolina, and less than one quarter of the population of Tennessee. Census Bureau, Negroes in the United States, 109. See, e.g., “Brunswick and the Smallpox,” AC, Jan. 7, 1900, 4.

49 C. P. Wertenbaker, “Report on the Smallpox Situation in Danville, Va.,” PHR, 14 (Jul. 27, 1899), 1038. KBOH 1898–99, 135, 79. KBOH 1902–03, see photo between 36 and 37.

50 W. F. Brunner, “Report of Smallpox in Montgomery County,” PHR, 14 (Jul. 21, 1899), 1124.

51 C. P. Wertenbaker to Dr. H. L. Sutherland, Chief Health Officer, Bolivar Co., Mississippi, July 30, 1910, CPWL, vol. 5.

52 S. B. Jones, “Fifty Years of Negro Public Health,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 49 (Sept., 1913): 138–46. See Edward H. Beardsley, A History of Neglect: Health Care for Blacks and Mill Workers in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987), esp. 11–36; W. Michael Byrd and Linda A. Clayton, An American Health Dilemma: Volume 1, idem, An American Health Dilemma: Volume 2: Race, Medicine, and Health Care in the United States 1900–2000 (New York: Routledge, 2000), esp. 80; James H. Jones, Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment, expanded ed. (New York: Free Press, 1993), esp. 16–21; Todd L. Savitt, “Black Health on the Plantation: Masters, Slaves, and Physicians,” in Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997), 351–68; Steven M. Stowe, Doctoring the South: Southern Physicians and Everyday Medicine in the Mid-Nineteenth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004); Werner Troesken, Water, Race, and Disease (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004).

53 W. E. B. Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (1899; reprint ed., New York: Schocken Books, 1967), 147–63, esp. 163. U.S. Census Bureau, A Discussion of the Vital Statistics of the Twelfth Census, by John Shaw Billings (Washington, 1904), 10–11. Byrd and Clayton, American Health Dilemma, Vol. 2, esp. 80.

54 Du Bois, Philadelphia Negro, 162. See Beardsley, History of Neglect, 11–36; Byrd and Clayton, American Health Dilemma, Vol. 1, 355.

55 Jones,