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rapid publication of, 174, 175

in traditional scientific publishing, 160, 163–65

web access fees for, 159–60. See also citations; journals, scientific

patents, 6, 184–86

patrons of science, 172, 173, 175

Pauling, Linus, 79, 80

Pauling, Peter, 79

peer review, 165, 179

Penguin collaborative novel, 53–54

Penrose, Roger, 81

Pereira, Fernando, 218

Pharyngula, 167

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 188–89

physics: comment sites for, 180

preprint arXiv, 161–63, 165, 175, 182, 194–96

string theory, 81, 178. See also gravity; quantum computing; quantum mechanics

Physics Comments, 180

Pihlajasalo, Antti, 26

Pisani, Elizabeth, 182

Planck, Max, 127–28

planets, extrasolar, 201

Playchess.com, 113–14

PLoS (Public Library of Science ), 162, 163, 165

Polanyi, Michael, 235

polio vaccine, 155–56

political decision making, 69–71, 75, 76

Polymath Project, 1–3

amplifying collective intelligence, 18, 21

collective insight in, 74

dynamic division of labor in, 35

expert attention and, 24

low-quality contributions to, 198–99

microcontributions to, 63, 64

modularity issue and, 51

open source compared to, 48, 66

papers as goal of, 9, 181

problem solved by, 209–13

scale of, 42, 43

shared praxis in, 75, 78

speed of process in, 30, 60

superiority to committees, 39–40

superiority to offline markets, 38

wiki of, 178–79

Popović, Zoran, 146148

preprints, 194–95, 196. See also arXiv

prime numbers, Green-Tao theorem for, 212, 213

PRISM (Partnership for Research Integrity in Science and Medicine), 165

privacy, 198. See also secrecy

problem solving: collective, by Foldit players, 147–48

creative, 24, 30, 34, 35, 36, 38

solitude and, 198, 199

Project eBird, 150

Project Solar Storm Watch, 141, 169

proteins: DNA coding for, 122, 143–45

examples of, 143–44

folding of, 143–48, 151 (see also Foldit)

structure and function of, 121

X-ray diffraction studies of, 145, 147

Ptolemy’s Almagest, 98, 102, 104, 107

Public Library of Science (PLoS), 162, 163, 165

publicly funded science:

commercially-driven secrecy in, 184–86

compelling openness in, 190–91

economic scale of, 203. See also grant agencies

public policy: on openscience, 205–6

scientific knowledge affecting, 157. See also government; society

publishers, and new knowledge tools, 235–36

publishing. See citations; journals, scientific; papers, scientific

quantum computing, 86, 176–77, 184, 187

quantum mechanics, Planck’s model for, 127–28

quantum theory of gravity, 81

quasar mirror, 5, 131–32

quasars, 130–32

Quick Reviews, 180

qwiki, 176–78

Ramsay, William, 138

Raymond, Eric, 218, 223

Red Hat, 45

Reed Elsevier Group, 164

Regan, Ken, 26

reputation economy, 193–94, 196, 197, 205

restructuring expert attention, 24

to amplify collective intelligence, 115

with collaboration market, 85

designed serendipity and, 27–28

by InnoCentive, 24

in Kasparov versus the World, 24–26

microexpertise and, 25–26, 32. See alsohitecture of attention

reuse, 33, 57–60

ideal of extreme openness and, 183

in MathWorks competition, 61

in open source collaborations, 48

Rhodes, Richard, 218

Rich, Ben, 218

Riehle, Dirk, 57, 63

Riemann, Bernhard, 27, 35

Rockefeller Foundation, 23

Roggeveen, Jacob, 170

Rubin, Vera, 127

Rudolph II (Kepler’s patron), 173

rumors, online, 201–2

Salk, Jonas, 155

Sanger, Larry, 8

SAP, 57, 63

scaling up collaboration, 32–33, 41–42

directing attention and, 42–43

filtering contributions and, 43

with microcontributions, 63–64

microexpertise and, 27

modularity and, 53, 56

in open source movement, 48, 53

scoring in, 66

shared methods required for, 33. See also amplifying collective intelligence; collaboration

Schawinski, Kevin, 133–35, 138, 139–40

Schmidt, Eric, 95

Science Advisor,