The Box - Marc Levinson [177]
16. Holcomb, “History, Description and Economic Analysis,” p. 220; Bernard J. McCarney, “Oligopoly Theory and Intermodal Transport Price Competition: Some Empirical Findings,” Land Economics 46, no. 4 (1970): 476.
17. Five of the ten leading users of the New York Central’s Flexi-Van service were freight forwarders, but four leading manufacturers and the Montgomery Ward department-store chain also were on the list; see memo, R. L. Milbourne, New York Central, to managers, July 10, 1964, in Penn Central Archives, Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, Delaware, Accession 1810/Box B-1872/Folder 15. Alexander Lyall Morton, “Intermodal Competition for the Intercity Transport of Manufactures,” Land Economics 48, no. 4 (1972): 360.
18. ICC, “Piggyback Traffic Characteristics,” pp. 6 and 58–60; Forgash, “Transport Revolution at the Last Frontier,” p. 63; Robert E. Bedingfield, “Personality: Champion of the Iron Horse,” NYT, February 22, 1959; “Trains and Trucks Take to the Ocean,” Via—Port of New York, Special Issue: Transatlantic Transport Preview (1965), p. 26; ICC, Transport Statistics in the United States, Part 9: Private Car Lines, Table 5, various years.
19. ICC, “Piggyback Traffic Characteristics,” p. 28. Canada’s piggyback carloadings from 1959 through 1961 were about one-third those of the United States, despite a much smaller economy. Containers, no. 35 (June 1966): 33.
20. Edward A. Morrow, “3-Way Piggyback Introduced Here,” NYT, August 10, 1960; Robert E. Bedingfield, “PiggyBack Vans Span Ocean Now,” NYT, March 12, 1961; Containers, no. 31 (June 1964): 25.
21. Author’s interview with Bernard Czachowski, New York, January 24, 1992.
22. PNYA, Annual Reports, various years; Hartman, Collective Bargaining, p. 270; McLean Industries, Annual Report, 1965.
23. U.S. Department of Commerce, Marad, “United States Flag Containerships,” April 25, 1969.
24. “Operators Uneasy on New Ships; Fear of Rapid Obsolescence Cited,” NYT, May 24, 1959. On 1964 discussions about entering the transatlantic trade, see Scott Morrison interview, COHP.
25. Hall interview; George Home, “Intercoastal Trade,” NYT, January 29, 1961, “Line Will Renew U.S. Coastal Run,” NYT, February 23, 1961, and “U.S. Aid Is Denied for Coastal Runs,” NYT, May 13, 1961. Some of the details here are from Jerry Shields, The Invisible Billionaire: Daniel Ludwig (Boston, 1986), p. 224.
26. Earl Hall interview, October 2, 1992; Sea-Land, Annual Report, 1965.
27. Morrison interview, COHP.
28. Ibid.; Werner Bamberger, “Rules on Cargo Boxes Revised to Spur Use and Ease Shipping,” NYT, March 17, 1966; Edward Cowan, “Container Service on Atlantic Begins,” NYT, April 24, 1966.
29. Cowan, “Container Service”; Edward A. Morrow, “New Stage Nears in Container Race,” NYT, March 28, 1966; A. D. Little, “Containerisation on the North Atlantic” (London, 1967), p. 14.
30. On whiskey, see Morrison interview, COHP. The estimate of Sea-Land’s military cargo comes from memorandum, B. P. O’Connor, director of international freight sales, to J. R. Sullivan, Weehawken division superintendent, New York Central Railroad, April 27, 1966, in Penn Central Archives, 1810/B-1675/8. On competitive bidding, see OAB/NHC, Post 1946 Command Files, MSTS, Box 889, Folder 1/1966; U.S. Department of Defense, news release No. 750–66, August 31, 1966; “US Is Firm on Its Plan for Bidding,” JOC, June 29, 1966.
31. PNYA, Annual Reports; “ The 1970 Outlook for Deep Sea Container Services,” p. 2; Edward Cowan, “Container Service on Atlantic Begins,” NYT, April 24, 1966.
32. Wallin, “The Development, Economics, and Impact,” p. 16; PNYA, Container Shipping: Full Ahead; “ Countdown on for Container Ships,” Via—Port of New