The Indian Ocean - Michael Pearson [248]
80 Maria Graham, Journal of a Residence in India, Edinburgh, A. Constable, 1812, p. 148.
81 Earl, The Eastern Seas, pp. 23–4.
82 Broeze et al., 'Imperial Ports of the Indian Ocean', p. 5.
83 Broeze et al., 'Engineering and Empire', pp. 270–1 and passim for engineering works in ports around the littoral.
84 K. Dharmasena, 'Colombo: Gateway and Oceanic Hub of Shipping', in Broeze, ed., Brides of the Sea, pp. 154 et seq.; K. Dharmasena, 'The Port and Dock Workers of Colombo, 1860–1960', Great Circle, VII, 2, p. 104 et seq.
85 Indu Banga, 'Karachi and its Hinterland under Colonial Rule', in Indu Banga, ed., Ports and their Hinterlands in India, 1700–1950, New Delhi, Manohar, 1992, pp. 337–58.
86 Tindall, City of Gold, pp. 24–8 for a good description.
87 I.S. van Dongen, 'Mombasa in the Land and Sea Exchange of East Africa', Erdkunde, 17, 1963, pp. 16–38; B.S. Hoyle, 'Maritime Perspectives on Ports and Port Systems: The Case of East Africa', in Broeze, ed., Brides of the Sea, pp. 188–206.
88 Broeze et al., 'Imperial Ports of the Indian Ocean', p. 2.
89 Broeze et al., 'Imperial Ports and the Modern World Economy', pp. 18–19.
90 Arnold, Science, Technology and Medicine, p. 102.
91 Satpal Sangwan, 'The Sinking Ships: Colonial Policy and the Decline of Indian Shipping, 1735–1835', in Roy MacLeod and Deepak Kumar, eds, Technology and the Raj: Western Technology and Technical Transfers to India, 1700–1947, New Delhi, Sage, 1995, pp. 137–52.
92 For all of this see Frank Broeze's seminal article, 'Underdevelopment and Dependence: Maritime India under the Raj', Modern Asian Studies, XVIII, 1984, pp. 429–57.
93 Lakshmi Subramanian, Indigenous Capital and Imperial Expansion: Bombay, Surat, and the West Coast, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 15.
94 Hans-Dieter Evers, 'Chettiar Moneylenders in Southeast Asia', in Denys Lombard and Jean Aubin, eds, Marchands et hommes d'affairs asiatiques dans l'Océan Indien et la Mer de Chine 13e-20e siècles, Paris, Editions de l'Ecole des hautes études en sciences sociales, 1988, pp. 199–219. For the notion of circulation see Claude Markovits, The Global World of Indian Merchants, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
95 Desh Gupta, 'South Asians in East Africa: Achievement and Discrimination', in Lance Brennan and Brij Lal, eds, South Asia, 1998, XXI, special issue, 'Across the Kala Pani: Indian Overseas Migration and Settlement', p. 106.
96 Richard F. Burton, Zanzibar, City, Island and Coast, Vol. II, London, Tinsley Brothers, 1872, pp. 327–8.
97 Quoted in Gervase Clarence-Smith, 'Indian Business Communities in the Western Indian Ocean in the Ninteenth Century', Indian Ocean Review, II, 4, December 1989, p. 20.
98 Earl, The Eastern Seas, pp. 177–8.
99 Rhys Richards, 'The Maritime Fur Trade: Sealers and Other Residents on St Paul and Amsterdam Islands', Great Circle, VI, 1 and 2, 1984, pp. 24–42 and 93–109.
100 Pfeiffer, A Lady's Second Journey, p. 148. For slavery see Gervase Clarence-Smith, ed., The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century, London, Cass, 1989.
101 Generally see K. McPherson, et al., 'The social expansion', in Friedland, ed., Maritime Aspects, pp. 427–40.
102 Hugh Tinker, A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas, 1830–1920, London, Oxford University Press, 1974, and for a more positive view David Northrup, Indentured Labour in the Age of Imperialism, 1834–1922, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995. For Indians see Lance Brennan and Brij Lal, eds, 'Across the Kala Pani: Indian Overseas Migration and Settlement', South Asia, XXI, 1998, Special Issue.
103 Robert C.-H. Shell, 'Islam in Southern Africa, 1652–1998', in Nehemia Levtzion and Randall L. Pouwels, eds, The History of Islam in Africa, Athens, Ohio, Ohio University Press, 2000, p. 339.
104 The standard work is Marina Carter, Servants, Sirdars and Settlers: Indians in Mauritius, 1834–1874, Delhi, Oxford