1861_ The Civil War Awakening - Adam Goodheart [237]
32. David Van Tassel, “Beyond Bayonets”: The Civil War in Northern Ohio (Kent, Ohio, 2006), p. 1; Frances Trollope, quoted in Andrew R. L. Cayton, Ohio: The History of a People (Columbus, 2002). Cayton’s book is a fine social and cultural history of the state from statehood to the present, and I have drawn from it substantially in my descriptions of nineteenth-century Ohio.
33. Cayton, Ohio, pp. 75–76.
34. Peskin, Garfield, p. 9; Henry K. Shaw, Buckeye Disciples: A History of the Disciples of Christ in Ohio (St. Louis, 1952), pp. 13–14, 126, 140–44; Frederick Bonner, quoted in Cayton, Ohio, p. 39; Leech and Brown, The Garfield Orbit, p. 12; A. S. Hayden, Early History of the Disciples in the Western Reserve, Ohio (Cincinnati, 1875), pp. 39, 454. The early Disciples shunned the terms “sect” and “denomination,” preferring to speak of “our communion” or “our brotherhood” (Shaw, p. 116).
35. Hayden, Early History, pp. 52–53. Campbell died on March 4, 1866—which his most loyal followers accepted as a fulfillment of the prophecy.
36. This is based on Smith’s own detailed account. The Disciples disputed his version of events.
37. Peskin, Garfield, p. 13; Brown and Williams, eds., The Diary of James A. Garfield, vol. 1, p. 36. The Disciples, like many American evangelical denominations, did not believe in infant baptism or “sprinkling,” maintaining that Christian conversion must instead involve the conscious decision of a penitent believer.
38. W. W. Wasson, James A. Garfield: His Religion and Education, (Nashville, 1952), pp. 6–14; Shaw, Buckeye Disciples, pp. 21, 41, 72ff.
39. Wasson, James A. Garfield, p. 51; “Hiram Nov 29/60,” lecture notes in JAG Papers; B. A. Hinsdale, President Garfield and Education, p. 71.
40. Cf. Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (New York, 2008), chap. 5.
41. Shaw, Buckeye Disciples, p. 191; Wasson, James A. Garfield, pp. 56–61.
42. Portage County Democrat [Ohio], Mar. 5, 1862.
43. Horatio Alger, Jr., From Canal Boy to President, or the Boyhood and Manhood of James A. Garfield (New York, 1881). The future president was born in November 1831, the future novelist in January 1832.
44. JAG to Burke Hinsdale, Aug. 7, 1857, in Mary Hinsdale, Garfield-Hinsdale Letters, p. 22. For a carefully researched and sensitively written study of Garfield’s early years, see Hendrik Booraem, The Road to Respectability: James A. Garfield and His World, 1844–1852 (Lewisburg, Ohio, 1988).
45. Wasson, James A. Garfield, p. 41; “Lecture at Hiram Before Gents & Ladies, Sep 19, 1860,” JAG Papers. For Emerson’s extremely wide-reaching influence on young men in the antebellum years, see Thomas Augst, The Clerk’s Tale: Young Men and Moral Life in Nineteenth-Century America (Chicago, 2003), chap. 3; David Leverenz, “The Politics of Emerson’s Man-Making Words,” PMLA, vol. 101, no. 1 (Jan. 1986), pp. 38–56. For the prewar Northern ideology of individualism, personal freedom, and egalitarianism, see Earl J. Hess, Liberty, Virtue, and Progress: Northerners and Their War for the Union (New York, 1997), esp. ch. 1.
46. See Booraem, The Road to Respectability, pp. 204–05.
47. Charles C. Cole, Jr., A Fragile Capital: Identity and the Early Years of Columbus, Ohio (Columbus, 2001), pp. 219–20.
48. JAG to Harry Rhodes, Sept. 22, 1858, and Feb. 3, 1859; Rhodes to JAG, July 1862; all in JAG Papers. Cotton’s “To Be Among the First” pointed me to these letters. James and Lucretia Garfield did eventually develop a close emotional bond, although their marriage was tested in the mid-1860s when she discovered his affair with Lucia Calhoun, a young New York Times reporter.
49. JAG to A. H. Pettibone, May 3, 1859, JAG Papers.
50. JAG, draft editorial, March 1861, JAG Papers; Sandusky Register, Nov. 24, 1860; Albany Journal, Oct. 4, 1860; Fall River News, Feb. 14, 1861, quoted in New-York