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66. New-York Tribune, February 20, 1861.

67. Woodward, Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, p. 44.

68. William H. Lee to Jefferson Davis, May 4, 1861, in Ira Berlin et al., eds., Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867, series 1, vol. 2: The Wartime Genesis of Free Labor: The Upper South (New York, 1993), p. 282.

69. Steven Hahn, A Nation Under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South, from Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge, Mass., 2003), p. 67.

70. Armstead Robinson, “In the Shadow of Old John Brown: Insurrection Anxiety and Confederate Mobilization, 1861–1863,” Journal of Negro History, vol. 65, no. 4 (Autumn, 1980), p. 285.

71. John T. Washington and John H. Stuart to Daniel Ruggles, May 7, 1861, and Daniel Ruggles to R. S. Garnett, May 8, 1861, both in OR I, vol. 2, p. 820.

72. New York Herald, May 30, 1861; Springfield Republican, June 1, 1861; “The (Fort) Monroe Doctrine,” Prints & Photographs Division, LC. The cartoon circulated as a “patriotic cover”—a decorative envelope often used by soldiers sending letters home from the front.

73. Rev. J. D. Fulton, “Funeral Sermon Commemorative of the Death of Colonel Elmer E. Ellsworth … Before the New York State Volunteers,” Albany Journal, May 28, 1861.

74. Montgomery Blair to BFB, May 29 and 31 [sic], 1861, BFB Papers, LC; New York World, June 4, 1861. Since newspaper accounts all confirm that the meeting occurred on May 30, it is likely that Blair misdated his second letter. The next day’s New York Times summarized the meeting thus: “The Cabinet adjourned without disposing of Sambo—not a surprising fact, considering that Sambo has been on hand so long.”

75. BFB to Winfield Scott, May 27, 1861, BFB Papers, LC; Montgomery Blair to BFB, May 29 and 31 [sic], 1861, BFB Papers, LC; New York Herald, May 30, 1861.

76. Montgomery Blair to BFB, June 8, 1861, BFB Papers, LC.

77. Curtis, “Theodore Winthrop,” Atlantic Monthly, August 1861.

78. Butler’s Book, pp. 246–49; Russell, pp. 405–06; Boston Traveller, May 1, 1861. For Scott on seafood, see Butler’s Book and Boston Traveller, June 18, 1861.

79. My description of the activities at Fortress Monroe is drawn from reporting in the Boston Traveller, New York Times, New York World, and Atlantic Monthly, as well as the BFB Papers and Butler’s Book. For Professor La Mountain, see Frederick Stansbury Haydon, Aeronautics in the Union and Confederate Armies (Baltimore, 1941). For the mosquitoes: New York Times, July 28, 1861.

80. New York Times, June 4 and 14, 1861; Alfred Davenport, Camp and Field Life of the Fifth New York Volunteer Infantry (Duryee Zouaves), (New York, 1879). Winslow Homer’s painting “The Briarwood Pipe” shows the Duryee Zouaves later in the war, sporting the red fezzes that they sometimes wore under their turbans. The Turner Rifles’ name came from the Turnverein, the German young men’s clubs that combined culture, nationalist politics, and physical fitness; the movement had come to America after 1848 and its adherents composed the bulk of the regiment’s recruits.

81. Boston Traveller, July 10, 1861; New York Times, June 2, 1861; BFB to Lewis Tappan, Aug. 10, 1861, Letters, vol. 1, pp. 200–01; The Independent, Aug. 8, 1861. Quite a number of Union accounts compared the “low white laboring class” unfavorably with the blacks. Major Rutherford B. Hayes wrote in his diary in January 1862, while stationed in western Virginia: “Two more contrabands yesterday. These runaways are bright fellows. As a body they are superior to the average of the uneducated white population of this State. More intelligent, I feel confident. What a good-for-nothing people the mass of these western Virginians are! Unenterprising, lazy, narrow, listless, and ignorant. Careless of consequences to the country if their own lives and property are safe. Slavery leaves one class, the wealthy, with leisure for cultivation. They are usually intelligent, well-bred, brave, and high-spirited. The rest are serfs.” Charles Richard Williams, ed., Diary and Letters of Rutherford B. Hayes, Nineteenth President