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United States Colored Troops Late 1st S.C. Volunteers (Boston, 1904), 8; Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Army Life in a Black Regiment (Boston, 1869), 34, 217. For a discussion of “The Sacred World of Black Slaves,” see Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York, 1977), 3–80.

50. Rawick (ed.), American Slave, IV: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 11. See also XVIII: Unwritten History, 76.

51. Mrs. Octavia Victoria Rogers Albert, The House of Bondage, or Charlotte Brooks and Other Slaves (New York, 1891), 55–56; Rawick (ed.), American Slave, XII: Ga. Narr. (Part 1), 258.

52. Wiley, Southern Negroes, 106–07; Macrae, Americans at Home, 367.

53. Coppin, Unwritten History, 64–66; Russell, My Diary North and South, 147; Esther W. Douglass to Rev. Samuel Hunt, Feb. 1, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives, Amistad Research Center, Dillard University, New Orleans.

54. Blassingame (ed.), Slave Testimony, 377; Rawick (ed.), American Slave, XV: N.C. Narr. (Part 2), 426.

55. New York Times, May 16, 1861, also reprinted in Douglass’ Monthly, IV (June 1861), 477; Rawick (ed.), American Slave, IV: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 11. For slave recollections of clandestine gatherings, see also Albert, House of Bondage, 12; H. C. Bruce, The New Man: Twenty-nine Years a Slave, Twenty-nine Years a Free Man (York, Pa., 1895; repr. New York, 1969), 99; Rawick (ed.), American Slave, IV and V: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 199, (Part 3), 240–41, (Part 4), 43, 154; VI: Ala. Narr., 68; VIII: Ark. Narr. (Part 1), 9; XIV: N.C. Narr. (Part 1), 419.

56. Ravenel, Private Journal, 269; Douglass’ Monthly, IV (July, Dec. 1861), 487, 564; New York Times, May 16, June 2, 7, Dec. 8, 1861. After confirming the rumor of a slave conspiracy nearby, Edmund Ruffin confided to his diary on May 26, 1861, that many slaves, “as in this case, have learned that Lincoln’s election was to produce general emancipation—& of course, many hoped for that, & since for northern military carrying out of that measure.” Diary, II, 35.

57. Douglass’ Monthly, IV (June 1861), 477; Wiley, Southern Negroes, 19. See also Bruce, New Man, 99–100; Washington, Up from Slavery, 8; and Blassingame (ed.), Slave Testimony, 616.

58. 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction (Washington, D.C., 1866), Part II, 177. For examples of how ex-slaves recalled the causes and issues of the war, see Armstrong, Old Massa’s People, 265; Rawick (ed.), American Slave, VII: Miss. Narr., 40; XIII: Ga. Narr. (Part 3), 101; XIV: N.C. Narr. (Part 1), 317; XVII: Fla. Narr., 292–93; Perdue et al. (eds.), Weevils in the Wheat, 216; Blassingame (ed.), Slave Testimony, 640.

59. L. G. C. [Causey] to husband [R. J. Causey], Nov. 19, 1863, R. J. Causey Papers, Louisiana State Univ. For the strengthening of patrol laws, see Wiley, Southern Negroes, 33–34. For the operation of the patrol system during slavery, see Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South (New York, 1956), 214–15, and Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, 1974), 617–19.

60. Brig. Gen. Richard Winter to Gov. John J. Pettus, June 6, 1862, in Betters-worth (ed.), Mississippi in the Confederacy, 77; Wiley, Southern Negroes, 36, 38; Ravenel, Private Journal, 130; George C. Rogers, Jr., The History of Georgetown County, South Carolina (Columbia, S.C., 1970), 406.

61. Johns, Florida During the Civil War, 152; Ruffin, Diary, II, 35–36. See also Putnam, Richmond During the Confederacy, 264–66; Richmond Dispatch, Nov. 13, 1862, quoted in New York Times, Nov. 23, 1862; Myers (ed.), Children of Pride, 1152–53; Jackson Daily Mississippian, April 15, 1863, in Bettersworth (ed.), Mississippi in the Confederacy, 238–39; Bryan, Confederate Georgia, 126. For efforts to restrict urban blacks, see, e.g., E. Merton Coulter, “Slavery and Freedom in Athens, Georgia, 1860–66,” in Miller and Genovese (eds.), Plantation, Town, and County, 344–50.

62. Bernard H. Nelson, “Legislative Control of the Southern Free Negro, 1861–1865,