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109. Wiley, Southern Negroes, 68; Aptheker, “Notes on Slave Conspiracies in Confederate Mississippi,” 78–79; Elijah P. Marrs, Life and History of the Rev. Elijah P. Marrs (Louisville, 1885), quoted in McPherson, Negro’s Civil War, 206–07. For a conspiracy by slaves near Laurinburg, North Carolina, to force themselves into the Union lines, see David P. Conyngham, Sherman’s March Through the South (New York, 1865), 355.

110. “Memorial to the Senate and House of Representatives of Georgia,” Proceedings of the Freedmen’s Convention of Georgia, Assembled at Augusta, January 10th, 1866 (Augusta, 1866), 18. For punishments meted out to suspected insurrectionists, see Bettersworth, Confederate Mississippi, 162–63; Sydnor, A Gentleman of the Old Natchez Region, 296–97; Wiley, Southern Negroes, 68, 82; Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts, 365–67; New York Times, Oct. 21, 1862, Oct. 29, 1863; John D. Winters, The Civil War in Louisiana (Baton Rouge, 1963), 307; Bryan, Confederate Georgia, 127.

111. Higginson, Army Life in a Black Regiment, 248.

112. Ibid., 248; Christian Recorder (Philadelphia), June 28, 1862; Anglo-African, Sept. 21, 1861.

113. Susan R. Jervey and Charlotte St. J. Ravenel, Two Diaries: From Middle St. John’s, Berkeley, South Carolina, February–May, 1865 (St. John’s Hunting Club, 1921; copy in South Caroliniana Library, Univ. of South Carolina), 7, 18; Durden, The Gray and the Black, 56. See also William G. Eliot, The Story of Archer Alexander: From Slavery to Freedom, March 30, 1863 (Boston, 1885), 46; Blassingame (ed.), Slave Testimony, 359; Ruffin, Diary, II, 409–10; Charles E. Cauthen (ed.), Family Letters of the Three Wade Hamptons, 1782–1901 (Columbia, S.C., 1953), 102; Nordhoff, Freedmen of South Carolina, 12; Oscar O. Winther (ed.), With Sherman to the Sea: The Civil War Letters, Diaries & Reminiscences of Theodore F. Upson (Bloomington, Ind., 1958), 73; John W. Hanson, Historical Sketch of the Old Sixth Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteers (Boston, 1866), 162; John Beatty, The Citizen-Soldier; or Memoirs of a Volunteer (Cincinnati, 1879), 132; New York Times, June 13, 1861, Nov. 3, 1862, May 9, 11, 1863, March 7, 1864, March 16, 1865; Wiley, Southern Negroes, 76–77; Wish, “Slave Disloyalty under the Confederacy,” 446–47; Allan Nevins, The War for the Union: The Organized War, 1863–1864 (New York, 1971), 415. For blacks as Union spies, see, e.g., WPA, Negro in Virginia, 199–200, and McPherson, Negro’s Civil War, 147–49.

114. McPherson, Negro’s Civil War, 150–53; John V. Hadley, Seven Months a Prisoner; or Thirty-six Days in the Woods (Indianapolis, 1868), 84; Wharton, Negro in Mississippi, 21.

115. James M. Guthrie, Camp-Fires of the Afro-American (Cincinnati [1899]), 306–16; Quarles, Negro in the Civil War, 71–74; Joel Williamson, After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina During Reconstruction, 1861–1877 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1965), 6–7; Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entry for May 14, 1862, Univ. of South Carolina. For the subsequent testimony of Smalls before the American Freedmen’s Inquiry Commission in 1863, see Blassingame (ed.), Slave Testimony, 373–79.

116. New York Times, June 2, 1861; Friends’ Central Committee for the Relief of the Emancipated Negroes, Letters from Joseph Simpson (London, 1865), 23.

117. Douglass’ Monthly, IV (July 1861), 487; New York Times, May 27, 1861; WPA, Negro in Virginia, 188–89; Willie Lee Rose, Rehearsal for Reconstruction (Indianapolis, 1964), 13–15; Louis S. Gerteis, From Contraband to Freedman: Federal Policy Toward Southern Blacks, 1861–1865 (West-port, Conn., 1973), 11–17; Wiley, Southern Negroes, 175–76; Nevins, War for the Union: The Organized War, 1863–1864, 421–23; C. Peter Ripley, Slaves and Freedmen in Civil War Louisiana (Baton Rouge, 1976), 25–39.

118. Simkins and Patton, Women of the Confederacy, 163; Wiley, Southern Negroes, 9–10; New York Times, Nov. 20, 1861, May 7, 1864; Bettersworth, Confederate Mississippi, 164; Bragg, Louisiana in