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159 Mo Rong, ‘Jiuye: Xinshiji mianlin de tiaozhan yu xuanze” (Employment: Challenges and Choices for the New Century), in Ru Xin et al., eds., SHLPS 2001, 219.

160 About 40 percent had a lower-middle school education or less. The average age was thirty-nine, with about half between thirty-five and forty-five and almost a quarter forty-five and older. Mo Rong, “Jiuye xingshi yiran yanzhong” (The Employment Situation Remains Severe), in Ru Xin et al., eds., SHLPS 2002, 165, 167.

161 Li Pcilin and Zhang Yi, “Zhongguo shouru chaju kuoda dc houguo ji zhili duice” (Rising Income Inequality in China: Consequences and Policy Options), Jingji yaocan 51 (2001):3.

162 Mo Rong, “Jiuye: Xinshiji mianlin de tiaozhan yu xuanze,” 220.

163 Song Bao’an and Wang Yushan, “Changchun shi xiagang zhigong zhuangkuang de wenjuan diaocha” (A Survey of the Conditions of Laid-off Workers in Changchun), in Ru Xin et al., eds., SHLPS1999, 274.

164 Lu Jianhua, “1998-1999: Zhongguo shehui xingshi fcnxi yu yucc zong baogao” (A General Report on and Analysis of the Social Conditions in China in 1998-1999), in Ru Xin et al., eds., SHLPS 1999, 9.

165 Yan et al., “Tianjin shi xiagang zhigong zhuangkuang de wenjuan diaocha” (A Survey of the Conditions of Laid-off Workers in Tianjin); Song and Wang, “Changchun shi xiagang zhigong zhuangkuang de wenjuan diaocha”; Jiang Shuge et al., “Xiagang yu zaijiuye wenti jiqi chulu” (Lay-offs and Reemployment: Problems and Solutions), in Ru Xin et al., eds., SHLPS 1999, 259-260, 281, 314.

166 In a survey of 1, 152 laid-off workers in Tianjin in October 1998, 38 percent said they cut down on their spending to make ends meet, 23 percent relied on help from family, 11 percent used savings, and 18 percent relied on friends and relatives. Yan et al., “Tianjin shi xiagang zhigong zhuangkuang de wenjuan diaocha,” 259-260.

167 Ibid., 262.

168 Mo Rong, “Zhongguo jiuye xingshi yiran yanzhong” 182, 168; Mo Rong, “Jiuye: Xinshiji mianlin de tiaozhan yu xuanze,” 218.

169 Yu Jianrong, “Zhuanxing Zhongguo de shehui chongtu” (Social Conflicts in a China in Transition) (Beijing: Institute of Rural Development, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, 2004).

170 Yan et al., “Tianjin shi xiagang zhigong zhuangkuang dc wenjuan diaocha,” 259.

171 Jiang Shuge, et al., “Xiagang yu zaijiuye wenti jiqi chulu,” 315.

172 Wang, Hu, and Ding, ‘Jingji fanrong beihou de shehui buwending,” 30.

173 Song and Wang, ”Changchun shi xiagang zhigong zhuangkuang de wenjuan diaocha,” 282.

174 On worker unrest, see Marc Blecher, ”Hegemony and Workers’ Politics in China,” The China Quarterly 170 (2002): 283-303; Yongshun Cai, ”The Resistance of Chinese Laid-Off Workers in the Reform Period,” The China Quarterly 170 (2002): 327-344; William Hurst and Kevin O’Brien, ”China’s Contentious Pensioners,”The China Quarterly170 (2002): 345-360.

175 Wang, Hu, and Ding, ”Jingji fanrong beihou de shehui buwending,” 31.

176 Human Rights Watch has a detailed account of this specific incident in its ”Paying the Price: Worker Unrest in Northeast China” (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2002).

177 ZGFLNJ 2003.

178 Yu Jianrong, ”Xinfang de zhiduxin queshi jiqi zhengzhi houguo” (The Institutional Flaws of Letters and Visits and Their Political Consequences) (Beijing: Institute of Rural Development, CASS, 2004).

179 NFZM, November 4, 2004.

180 According to Yu Jianrong’s research, about 50 percent of the petitioners thought the central government’s authority in rural areas was ”very high and quite high.” In comparison, only 2 percent said the county government’s authority was ”very high or quite high.” Yu Jianrong, ”Xinfang de zhiduxin queshi jiqi zhengzhi houguo.”

181 Ibid.

182 The July 2000 poll surveyed 2,001 residents in urban areas in six cities. Yang and Zhang, ”Zhongguo chengzhen jumin shehui xintai de diaocha baogao,” 31. The September 2001 poll included 1,999 residents in five provinces. Institute