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50 Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863—1877 (1988), p. 425; on the origins of the Klan, see William Peirce Randel, The Ku Klux Klan: A Century of Infamy (1965), chap. 1; Albion W. Tourgee, “The Invisible Empire,” Part II of Tourgee’s A Fool’s Errand (1880).
51 Randel, The Klan, p. 266.
52 Foner, Reconstruction, p. 426.
53 Ibid., p. 429.
54 Cresswell, Mormons, pp. 20—21.
55 Robert J. Kaczorowski, The Politics of Judicial Interpretation: The Federal Courts, Department of Justice, and Civil Rights, 1866—1876 (1985), pp. 56—57.
56 Cresswell, Mormons, pp. 26—27, 62.
57 See, in general, Miller, Revenuers and Moonshiners; and Cresswell, Mormons.
58 Cresswell, Mormons, p. 158.
59 Brown, Strain of Violence, pp. 59—60.
60 Larry D. Ball, Desert Lawmen: The High Sheriffs of New Mexico and Arizona, 1846—1912 (1992), pp. 133—34.
61 Robert P. Ingalls, Urban Vigilantes in the New South: Tampa, 1882—1936 (1988), pp. 2—3.
62 Ibid., p. 4.
63 Francis A. J. Ianni, A Family Business: Kinship and Social Control in Organized Crime (1972), pp. 1—2.
64 Brown, Strain of Violence, pp. 214—15.
65 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States, 1889—1918 (1919), pp. 7—8. Of the grand total of 3,224 victims, only 61 were women: 50 black women, 11 white (Ibid.).
66 Kissimmee Valley Gazette (Florida), April 28, 1899, reprinted in Ralph Ginzburg, ed., One Hundred Years of Lynching (1962), pp. 10—11.
67 Brown, Strain of Violence, p. 218.
68 E. M. Beck, James L. Massey, and Stewart E. Tolnay, “The Gallows, the Mob, and the Vote: Lethal Sanctioning of Blacks in North Carolina and Georgia, 1882 to 1930,” Law and Society Review 23:317, 329 (1989).
69 See Nancy MacLean, “The Leo Frank Case Reconsidered: Gender and Sexual Politics in the Making of Reactionary Populism,” Journal of American History 78:917 (1991).
CHAPTER 9. LEGAL CULTURE: CRIMES OF MOBILITY
1 On the themes of this chapter, see also my article, “Crimes of Mobility,” Stanford Law Review 43:637 (1991).
2 Alexis de Toqueville, Democracy in America (ed., J. P. Mayer; 1969), p. 582.
3 I am indebted to Professor Adam Hirsch for this observation.
4 A typical example from the Compiled Laws of Kans., 1862, chap. 33, sec. 88: a person who “with intent to cheat or defraud another, shall, designedly, by color of any false token or writing, or by any other false pretence . . . obtain from any person any money, personal property . . . or other valuable thing,” is to be treated as if he or she had stolen the “money, property, or thing so obtained.” Under chap. 33, sec. 91, similar treatment is mandated for a person who “shall falsely represent or personate another, and, in such assumed character, shall receive any money . . . or property . . . intended to be delivered to the individual so personated.”
5 So. Dak. Stats. (1899), Vol. 2, chap. 47, sec. 8082, p. 1976.
6 Anthony Comstock, Frauds Exposed, or How the People Are Deceived and Robbed, and Youth Corrupted (1880), p. 14.
7 James D. McCabe, Jr., Lights and Shadows of New York Life: or, The Sights and Sensations of the Great City (1872; reprint ed., 1970), p. 751.
8 McCabe, Lights and Shadows, p. 319. McCabe thought there was “no city in the Union in which impostors of all kinds flourish so well as in New York,” because of the “immense size of the city, the heterogeneous character of its population, and the great variety of the interests and pursuits of the people” (ibid., p. 316).
9 New York Times, Dec. 13, 1902, p. 6; Dec. 21, 1902, p. 19.
10 McCabe, Lights and Shadows, p. 319.
11 New York Times, March 21, 1894, p. 1.
12 George W. Walling, Recollections of a New York Chief of Police (1887; reprint ed., 1972), pp. 335—37.
13 See T. F. Byrnes, Professional Criminals of America (1886), pp. 405—6.
14 See “Clever Swindlers Specialize in Victimizing Lawyers,” American Bar Association Journal 12:132—33 (1926).
15 New York Times, March 10, 1888, p. 6.
16 Raphael Semmes, Crime and Punishment in Early Maryland (1938),