Freedom, Inc_ - Brian M. Carney [149]
4. Nevertheless, in order to earn a degree, a student would have to pass examinations in at least three fields, called “schools.” Alternatively, a student could seek a “certificate of graduation” by completing the requirements of one or more schools, which today we would think of as academic departments.
5. Dabney, Mr. Jefferson’s University, p. 8.
6. Obviously, not all of America’s inhabitants were treated as intrinsically equal in Jefferson’s time, although in 1819, he claimed that “no man on earth wanted an end to slavery more than he did” (Ellis, American Sphinx, p. 317). He would never find, though, a way to abolish slavery without causing what he saw as the economic destruction of the South.
7. The debate about tangible rewards is not entirely settled among the psychologists (see for example, R. Eisenberger, W. D. Pierce, and J. Cameron, “Effects of Reward on Intrinsic Motivation—Negative, Neutral, and Positive: Comment on Deci, Koestner, and Ryan,” Psychological Bulletin 125 [1999]: pp. 677–91). Some researchers point out that the argument in the football story and similar research experiments is not about the damaging effect of tangible rewards but about the damaging effect of first promising and then withdrawing these rewards. This, however, is exactly what almost always happens with bonuses and perks in companies once bad results or times hit, as they always do. More important for our purposes, though, is that the vast psychological findings on the tangible rewards’ damaging effects on self-motivation is essentially ignored by traditional “how” companies.
8. Personal interview, September 24, 2007.
9. John Dewey, Later Works, 1925–1953, ed. Jo Ann Boydston (Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1985), 12, p. 112.
10. D. L. Rubenson, “Art and Science, Ancient and Modern: A Psychoeconomic Perspective on Domain Differences in Creativity,” in Creative Intelligence: Toward Theoretic Integration, ed. D. Ambrose, L. M. Cohen, and A. J. Tannenbaum (Cresskill, New Jersey: Hampton Press, Inc., 2003), pp. 131–46.
11. Robert Sternberg, Intelligence Applied: Understanding and Increasing Your Intellectual Skills (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986).
12. Robert J. Sternberg and Todd I. Lubart, Defying the Crowd: Cultivating Creativity in a Culture of Conformity (New York: Free Press, 1995), pp. 93–94.
13. Douglas McGregor, The Professional Manager (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), pp. 10–11. The emphasis is McGregor’s.
14. McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise, p. 265.
15. Townsend, Up the Organization, p. 96.
16. Blaise Pascal, Pensées, trans. W. F. Trotter (New York: P. F. Collier and Son, 1909–14), p. 347.
17. The description of Deci, Ryan, and associates’ views and research is based on Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, “The ‘What’ and ‘Why’ of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior,” Psychological Inquiry 11 (2000): pp. 227–68; and M. Gagné and Edward Deci, “Self-Determination Theory and Work Motivation,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 26 (2005): pp. 331–62.
18. It can be argued that the highest need in Maslow’s hierarchy—self-actualization—is never fully satisfied and so continually motivates people to new action to satisfy it. Though this may be true for a small portion of human beings, even for them Maslow’s view of an unsatisfied need is that of a tension that one strives to reduce, which is very different from Deci and Ryan’s view of needs as nutriments.
19. We are not ignoring the importance of physical and security needs. A chronically hungry or hurt child obviously won’t enjoy playing. At the workplace, whether the majority of employees have their essential physical and security needs satisfied or not is, of course, debatable. Regarding employees in developed economies, Angus Maddison has shown (see note 1 in chapter 2) that the satisfaction of other than material-subsistence needs was no longer limited to a tiny elite but was available to the majority of the inhabitants of developed countries.