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noumena 646

nous 69, 273–5, 277, 307, 396

number:

logical analysis 738–40;

Plato 142–4, 153–5;

Pythagoras 43

Occam, William of see William of Occam

Occam's razor 435

Oenopides 205

Old Testament 292–6, 302–3, 534–5

oligarchy 110, 183–4, 458

Omar Khayyám 393

One 55–6, 272–4, 278–9, 377

ontological argument for the existence of God 388–9, 430, 535–7, 643, 710

opinion:

Locke, J. 554–5;

Plato 122–3, 129–30, 142, 144–5

opposites:

Anaxagoras 69;

Heraclitus 51;

Parmenides 55;

Plato 122, 137, 139;

Stoicism 246

optimism 271, 686, 714

organism:

Aristotle 180;

Dewey, J. 733–4;

Hegel, G. W. F. 662;

theory of evolution 659

Origen 307–9, 440;

hell 337;

Holy Trinity 272n;

Jerome, St 320;

miracles 311;

Old Testament translation 303;

Plotinus 276

original sin 339–40, 423

Orpheus 26, 32

Orphism 26–32;

Aristotle 159;

Christianity 291, 310–11, 328, 439–40;

distinction of body and soul 134, 137;

Empedocles 60, 64;

immortality 310–11;

philosophical schools 83;

Plato 28, 109, 121, 137;

Pythagoreanism 40–2, 45;

Socrates 96, 133;

Stoicism 247;

suicide 133;

theory 41–2

Otto, Emperor 410–11

Owen, Robert 704–5

Oxford University 446, 447, 551

Pachomius 350

paganism:

Aristotle 199;

Athens 67;

Augustine, St 332–3, 337;

Epicureans 236;

influence on Christianity 316, 439–40;

sacking of Rome by Goths 331–3;

Scepticism 224;

spread to West via Hellenism 264–6;

see also gods and goddesses

pain:

Epicurus 233–4, 235, 236

pairs:

Heraclitus 51

Panaetius the Stoic 246, 247, 258, 261, 262

pantheism 330, 344, 378, 379, 523

papacy:

authority over early Church 310;

Avignon 433, 442, 444;

Church and State 4–5, 337–8;

Crusades 402–3;

Dark Ages 363–73;

decline 433–4, 440–8;

divine right of kings 564;

ecclesiastical reform 380, 381, 383–8;

Erasmus 475;

Great Schism 444–5;

Gregory the Great 349, 354–9, 355;

Hobbes, T. 508;

Holy Roman Empire 398–402, 407, 409–13, 432–3, 441;

Machiavelli, N. on 467;

Middle Ages 6, 285–6;

Reformation and Counter-Reformation 481;

Renaissance 459–60, 462–3;

William of Occam 434

Papal States 365–6, 457, 459–60

parallelogram law 490–1

parallels, Euclid 202

Parmenides 55–9;

Anaxagoras 69;

atomists 74–6;

empirical knowledge 148;

eternity 53;

Leucippus 71, 72;

logical argument 74;

perception 224;

permanence 54;

Plato 109, 121, 122–3, 128–30, 151;

Plotinus and Neoplatonism 272;

Pythagoreanism 40;

Zeno 97

particulars:

Aquinas, St Thomas 422;

Aristotle 159–61, 191;

Hume, D. 601–2;

John the Scot 377;

Locke, J. 556;

Plato 128–9

Pascal, Blaise 692, 693

passions:

Augustine, St 334;

cult of Dionysus 26, 28–31;

Hobbes, T. 504;

individualism 547;

romantic movement 617, 620–1;

Spinoza, B. de 524–30;

Stoicism 244;

see also emotions

Patarines 385, 400, 402

Patrick, St 341, 350, 358, 374

Paul, St:

Christianity as reformed Judaism 305;

immortality of the soul 137;

Law 299;

marriage 382, 383;

original sin 340;

Seneca 248;

'The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs' 301;

theology 307

Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich 699

peasantry 577–8, 587, 615–16

Peirce, C. S. 727

Peisistratus 21, 67, 468

Pelagianism 320, 339–40, 375–6, 431

Pelagius 320, 339–40, 375–6

Pelagius II, Pope 354

Peloponnesian War 65, 67, 81, 85, 90

Pepin 364–6, 368

perception:

atomists 78;

Bergson, H. 718–19, 720–1;

Berkeley, G. 589–99;

causal relations 607–9;

Descartes, R. 517–19;

Gnosticism 275;

Hegel, G. W. F. 664;

Hume, D. 607–9;

Kant, I. 641–2, 646–50;

knowledge 255, 437, 556, 557–8, 641–2, 664;

Leibniz, G. W. 533–4, 542;

Locke, J. 552–3, 556, 557–8;

logical analysis 742;

Marx, K. 707–8;

Plato 125–7, 134–7, 148–56, 224, 556;

Plotinus 275;

Scepticism 224;

Stoicism 242, 246, 255;

William of Occam 437

Pericles 65–6, 67, 85;

Anaxagoras 68–9;

Aristotle 187;

Sophists 81

Peripatetics 263

permanence:

Heraclitus 51, 52–4;

Parmenides 55, 57–9;

Plato 109

perpetual flux:

Heraclitus 51, 52–4;

Plato 52, 149, 150–1, 156

Persia 85;

Alexandrian conquest 211, 212;

Athens 65;

Christianity 439, 440;

Egypt 38–9;

Greece 23;

Hellenistic world 218;

Ionia