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” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 13 (1975): 414–432. It was applied to the leadership literature that same year by Terence R. Mitchell, James R. Larson, and Stephen G. Green, “Leader Behavior, Situational Moderators, and Group Performance: An Attributional Analysis,” Defense Technical Information Center, Accession No: AD1021285. The fundamental idea—that positive attributes will be construed as occurring together even if they don’t, undergirds the argument in Phil Rosenzweig, The Halo Effect (New York: Free Press, 2007).

18. These and other data on the extent of misrepresenting qualifications on resumés can be found in Jeffrey Pfeffer, What Were They Thinking? Unconventional Wisdom About Management (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2007), ch. 13.

19. See, for instance, E. E. Jones and S. Berglas, “Control of Attributions About the Self Through Self-Handicapping Strategies: The Appeal of Alcohol and the Role of Underachievement,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 4 (1978):200–206.

20. Michael J. Strube, “An Analysis of the Self-Handicapping Scale,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 7 (1986): 211–224.

21. Frederick Rhodewalt and James Davison Jr., “Self-Handicapping and Subsequent Performance: Role of Outcome Valence and Attributional Certainty,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 7 (1986): 307–322.

1. It Takes More Than Performance

1. Christine Armario, “Miami Ousts Nationally Recognized School Leader,” Associated Press, September 11, 2008.

2. Amy C. Edmondson, Brian R. Golden, and Gary J. Young, “Turnaround at the Veterans Health Administration (A),” Case no. 9-607-035, Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing, July 20, 2007.

3. Catherine Arnst, “The Best Medical Care in the U.S.,” BusinessWeek, July 17, 2006.

4. Amy C. Edmondson and Brian R. Golden, “Turnaround at the Veterans Health Administration (B),” Case no. 9-608-062, Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing, August 14, 2007.

5. F. David Schoorman, “Escalation Bias in Performance Appraisals: An Unintended Consequence of Supervisor Participation in Hiring Decisions,” Journal of Applied Psychology 73 (1988): 58–62.

6. James L. Medoff and Katherine G. Abraham, “Experience, Performance, and Earnings,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 95 (1980): 705–736.

7. Thomas J. Dohmen, “Performance, Seniority, and Wages: Formal Salary Systems and Individual Earnings Profiles,” Labour Economics 11 (2004): 741–763.

8. Abraham Carmeli, Revital Shalom, and Jacob Weisberg, “Considerations in Organizational Career Advancement: What Really Matters,” Personnel Review 36 (2007): 190–205.

9. Dimitrios Spyropoulos, “Analysis of Career Progression and Job Performance in Internal Labor Markets: The Case of Federal Civil Service Employees,” unpublished master’s thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, School of Business and Public Policy, Monterey, CA, March 2005; http://www.stormingmedia.us/71/7132/A713234.html.

10. S. C. Gilson, “Management Turnover and Financial Distress,” Journal of Financial Economics 25 (1989): 241–262.

11. C. Edward Fee and Charles J. Hadlock, “Management Turnover Across the Corporate Hierarchy,” Journal of Accounting and Economics 37 (2004): 3–38.

12. Eddie Harmon-Jones and John J. B. Allen, “The Role of Affect in the Mere Exposure Effect: Evidence from Psychophysiological and Individual Differences Approaches,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 27 (2001): 889–898.

13. Angela Y. Lee, “The Mere Exposure Effect: An Uncertainty Reduction Explanation Revisited,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 27, no. 10 (2001): 1255–1266.

14. Robert B. Zajonc, “Mere Exposure: A Gateway to the Subliminal,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 10, no. 6 (2001): 224–228.

15. Elizabeth Kolbert, “How Tina Brown Moves Magazines,” New York Times Magazine, December 5, 1993.

16. For a review of this literature, see John R. Chambers and Paul D. Windschitl, “Biases in Social Comparative Judgments: The Role of Nonmotivated Factors in Above-Average