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227–29; Stanley L. Engerman, Slavery, Emancipation and Freedom: Comparative Perspectives (Baton Rouge, 2007), 4–5, 36–50; David Brion Davis, “The Emancipation Moment,” in Gabor S. Boritt, ed., Lincoln the War President (New York, 1992), 75–79; CW, 6: 48–49. An article in the New York Commercial Advertiser, reprinted in Douglass’ Monthly (April 1862), 636–37, summarizes the various measures that abolished slavery in the northern states.

32. Eric Foner, The Story of American Freedom (New York, 1998), 40–41; Winthrop D. Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1550–1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968), 354; Leonard P. Curry, The Free Black in Urban America, 1800–1850 (Chicago, 1981), 260; Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790–1860 (Chicago, 1961), 31–54, 74–93; David W. Blight, Frederick Douglass’ Civil War: Keeping Faith in Jubilee (Baton Rouge, 1989), 13.

33. Philip S. Foner, Business and Slavery: The New York Merchants and the Irrepressible Conflict (Chapel Hill, 1941); Steven Deyle, Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade in American Life (New York, 2005); James L. Huston, “Property Rights in Slavery and the Coming of the Civil War,” JSH, 65 (May 1999), 254.

34. Betty L. Fladeland, “Compensated Emancipation: A Rejected Alternative,” JSH, 42 (May 1976), 171–76; Robert P. Forbes, The Missouri Compromise and Its Aftermath: Slavery and the Meaning of America (Chapel Hill, 2007), 170.

35. Harper’s Weekly, April 5, 1862; Forbes, Missouri Compromise, 28, 219, 251; David Brion Davis, “Reconsidering the Colonization Movement: Leonard Bacon and the Problem of Evil,” Intellectual History Newsletter, 14 (1992), 3–4.

36. Philip S. Foner, ed., The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass (5 vols.; New York, 1950–75), 1: 390; Merrill D. Peterson, ed., Thomas Jefferson: Writings (New York, 1984), 1484–87.

37. Isaac V. Brown, Biography of the Rev. Robert Finley (2nd ed.; Philadelphia, 1857), 103–15; Douglas R. Edgerton, “Averting a Crisis: The Proslavery Critique of the American Colonization Society,” CWH, 43 (June 1997), 143–47; Daniel W. Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979), 136.

38. Robert V. Remini, Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (New York, 1991), 491–92, 508, 617–18, 772–73; Hopkins, Papers of Henry Clay, 8: 483; 9: 256–57, 779–80; 10: 356, 844–46; Harold D. Tallant, Evil Necessity: Slavery and Political Culture in Antebellum Kentucky (Lexington, Ky., 2003), 49; Edgerton, “Averting a Crisis,” 147.

39. Schuyler Colfax to William H. Seward, April 27, 1850, William H. Seward Papers, Rush Rhees Library, University of Rochester; CW, 2: 79; 3: 29; Remini, Henry Clay, 8n.; Hopkins, Papers of Henry Clay, 10: 844–46.

40. Dixon D. Bruce Jr., “National Identity and African-American Colonization, 1773–1817,” Historian, 58 (Autumn 1995), 15–28; Floyd J. Miller, The Search for a Black Nationality: Black Emigration and Colonization, 1787–1863 (Urbana, Ill., 1975), 25–29, 49–50; Leonard I. Sweet, Black Images of America, 1784–1870 (New York, 1976), 39–43.

41. William Lloyd Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization (Boston, 1832), 5; Proceedings of the American Anti-Slavery Society at Its Third Decade (New York, 1864), 19–20; Manisha Sinha, “Black Abolitionism: The Assault on Southern Slavery and the Struggle for Equal Rights,” in Ira Berlin and Leslie Harris, eds., Slavery in New York (New York, 2005), 243; Hopkins, Papers of Henry Clay, 8: 773, 793.

42. Robert Cover, Justice Accused: Antislavery and the Judicial Process (New Haven, 1975), 44–45; Wendell Phillips, Speeches, Lectures, and Letters (Boston, 1863), 110; Patrick Rael, Black Identity and Black Protest in the Antebellum North (Chapel Hill, 2002), 47.

43. Paul Starr, The Creation of the Media (New York, 2004), 86–88; Richard S. Newman, The Transformation of American Abolitionism: Fighting Slavery in the Early Republic (Chapel Hill, 2002), 131–32, 158–59.

44. Newman, Transformation, 6; Merrill D. Peterson, The Jeffersonian Image in the American Mind (New York, 1960), 172–73; Liberator, January 1, 1831;