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extensively on traditional Indian navigation. Useful summaries are 'Traditional Sea and Sky Wisdom of Indian Seamen and their Practical Application', in Ray and Salles, eds, Tradition and Archeology, pp. 261–81 and 'Indigenous Traditions of Indian Navigation with Special Reference to South India', in Mathew. ed., Studies in Maritime History, pp. 127–42.

44 Lotika Varadarajan, 'Traditions of Indigenous Navigation in Gujarat', South Asia, III, 1, 1980, pp. 28–35.

45 See two slightly different translations: Paul Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese, Kuala Lumpur, University of Malaya Press, 1961, p. 38, and F. Hirth and W.W. Rockhill, trans. and ed., Chau Ju-kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelth and Thirteenth Centuries, entitled Chu-fan-chi, St Petersburg, 1911, New York, Paragon Book Reprint Corp, 1965, pp. 27–8.

46 Ian C. Glover, 'The Archaeological Evidence for Early Trade between India and Southeast Asia', in Reade, ed., Indian Ocean in Antiquity, pp. 365–92; Ian C. Glover, 'Recent Archaeological Evidence for Early Maritime Contacts between India and Southeast Asia', in Ray and Salles, eds, Tradition and Archeology, pp. 129–58. See also the critique by Monica Smith, 'The Dynamic Realm', op. cit.

47 Gunawardana in Chandra, ed., Indian Ocean, p. 69.

48 Hermann Kulke, 'Rivalry and Competition in the Bay of Bengal in the Eleventh Century and its Bearing on Indian Ocean Studies', in Om Prakash and Denys Lombard, eds, Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal, 1500–1800, New Delhi, Manohar, 1999, p. 24.

49 Richard Pankhurst, 'Ethiopia across the Red Sea and Indian Ocean', Africa News Service, 17 May 1999.

50 Ian Gillman and Hans-Joachim Klimkeit, Christians in Asia before 1500, Richmond, Curzon, 1999, p. 11.

51 Hourani, Arab Seafaring, p. 149; for the earlier date Horton and Middleton, The Swahili, p. 27.

52 Julian Reade, 'Evolution in Indian Ocean Studies', in Reade, ed., Indian Ocean in Antiquity, p. 20.

53 Bellwood, 'From Bird's Head', op. cit.; Ben Finney, 'The Other One-Third of the Globe', Journal of World History, V, 2, 1994, pp. 273–97.

54 Pierre-Yves Manguin, 'Southeast Asian Shipping in the Indian Ocean during the first millenium AD', in Ray and Salles, ed., Tradition and Archeology, p. 181 et seq.

55 Roger Blench, 'The Ethnographic Evidence for Long-distance Contacts Between Oceania and East Africa', in Reade, ed., Indian Ocean in Antiquity, pp. 417–33.

56 Manguin, op. cit.

57 Mark Horton, '"Mare Nostrum" a new archaeology of the Indian Ocean?' Antiquity, 71, 1997, p. 749.

4 Muslims in the Indian Ocean

1 Quoted in Lamin Sanneh, 'Time, Space, and Prescriptive Marginality in Muslim Africa: Symbolic Action and Structural Change', in Philip Pomper et al., eds,. World History: Ideologies, Structure and Identities, Oxford, Blackwell, 1998, pp. 142–3.

2 M. Pickthall, The Meaning of the Glorious Koran: An Explanatory Translation, London, A.A. Knopf, 1930, XXX, p. 46; XVII, p. 66; XLV, p. 12.

3 Quoted in Peregrine Horden and Nicholas Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History, Vol. I, Oxford, Blackwell, 2000, p. 171.

4 H.M.J. Maier, 'The Malays and the Sea, the Waves and the Java Sea', in V.J.H. Houben et al., eds, Looking in Odd Mirrors: The Java Sea, Leiden, University of Leiden, 1992, p. 4.

5 For discussions of different types of dhows, see Edward Prados, 'Indian Ocean Littoral Maritime Evolution: The Case of the Yemeni huri and sanbuq', Mariner's Mirror, 83, 1997, pp. 185–98; Alan Villiers, Sons of Sinbad, New York, C. Scribner's Sons, 1940, pp. 337–8.

6 Apart from Villiers and Prados cited in the previous note, see works by the following listed in the bibliography: John Jewell, Clifford Hawkins, E.B. and C.P.M. Martin, and Richard LeBaron Bowen's two excellent ethnographic studies.

7 Marco Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, trans. and ed. Henry Yule and Henri Cordier, London, John Murray, 1921, 2 vols, I, p. 108.

8 Muhammad ibn Ahmad Ibn Jubayr, The Travels of Ibn Jubayr (1183